Renaissance Art

Renaissance art represented a significant departure from medieval artistic traditions, reflecting the era's emphasis on humanism, individualism, and classical revival. The development of early banking systems brought great wealth to Italian city-states, making art ownership a symbol of status and affluence.

Characteristics of Renaissance art include:

1. Dual focus on religious and secular themes
2. Use of perspective to create depth and realism
3. Natural sources of light and appropriate shadowing
4. Emphasis on realism and anatomical accuracy
5. Embrace of nudity, reflecting classical influences
6. Incorporation of Greco-Roman culture (classicism)
7. Emphasis on humanism and individualism

Notable Renaissance artists and their works:

1. Leonardo da Vinci "The Last Supper" exemplifies da Vinci's focus on symmetry and mathematical precision in composition.

2. Michelangelo The "Statue of David" borrows heavily from classical Greek sculptures. Commissioned by the city of Florence, David became a symbol of the city's resistance against invading armies.

The Sistine Chapel ceiling combines Christian and classical themes in a masterful display of fresco painting.

3. Raphael "The School of Athens" is a completely secular work commissioned by Pope Julius II, showcasing the Renaissance interest in classical philosophy and learning.

4. Andrea Palladio Considered the most influential architect of the Renaissance, Palladio wrote four books on architecture that continued to influence Western building design for centuries.

Highlight: Renaissance art marked a significant shift from medieval traditions, emphasizing realism, classical influences, and the celebration of human potential.

Mannerism: A Transition from Renaissance to Baroque

Mannerism emerged as a transitional style between the High Renaissance and the Baroque period. While retaining some Renaissance characteristics, Mannerist art introduced several distinctive features:

1. Unusual placement and postures of figures
2. Distorted body proportions
3. Unnatural colors
4. Unbalanced compositions

Example: El Greco's elongated figures and unconventional use of color exemplify Mannerist tendencies in painting.

The New Monarchies

The emergence of New Monarchies in Europe marked a significant shift from the feudal system of the Middle Ages. These centralized states consolidated power in the hands of monarchs, laying the foundation for the modern nation-state.

Comparison of Feudal Kingdoms and New Monarchies:

Feudal Kingdoms:

1. Kings received funds from nobles, who in turn collected from peasants
2. Nobles protected the king in exchange for land
3. Kings relied on nobles for advice and counsel
4. Nobles enforced laws in their territories
5. Kings shared power with the Church

New Monarchies:

1. Kings continued to receive funds from nobles but also directly taxed towns and peasants
2. Professional standing armies replaced feudal levies
3. Monarchs established their own administrations with educated professionals (bureaucracy)
4. Reduced reliance on the Church for governance

Vocabulary: Bureaucracy - A system of government administration carried out by non-elected officials, characterized by standardized procedures and hierarchical organization.

Jean Bodin and the Theory of Sovereignty

Jean Bodin, a French political philosopher, developed the concept of sovereignty, which greatly influenced the development of New Monarchies.

Definition: Sovereignty - The supreme power or authority within a state, free from external influence.

Bodin also argued for the Divine Right Theory, which posited that monarchs were chosen by God and that people should submit to state authority.

New Monarchies in Europe:

1. England: The Tudor Dynasty • Henry VII established the "Star Chamber," a special court to try and punish nobles who opposed the king's increasing power. • Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England, further consolidating royal power and confiscating Church lands.

2. France: The Valois Dynasty Consolidated power through centralization and bureaucratic reforms.

3. Spain: Ferdinand and Isabella • United Spain through marriage and religious uniformity • Reduced the number of nobles in their council, replacing them with educated professionals • Established the Spanish Inquisition

Highlight: The Spanish Inquisition, initially a Church institution, was taken over by the Spanish monarchs, demonstrating the increasing power of the state over religious affairs.

Example: The Spanish Inquisition targeted religious minorities, particularly Jews, in an effort to enforce Catholic religious unity across the newly unified Spanish kingdoms.

These New Monarchies laid the groundwork for the absolute monarchies of the 17th and 18th centuries and played a crucial role in shaping modern European states.