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physics & motion o Believed in celestial spheres and earth (sublunary world). Spheres had fifth essence Sublunary had 4 imperfect, changeable elements of fire, air, (both went up), water, and earth (both went down) Elements could b affected by outside force o Believed uniform forces moved objects @ constant speed & would stop if force was removed Origins of the Scientific Revolution Scientific Revolution-period of time of rapid scientific, mathematical, & political thought development based on the philosophy of empiricism & faith in the 1500s & 1600s o Origins stem from the implement of universities in the 1300s in W Europe Law, doctor, philosophy, and theology Universities depended on Islamic learnings from Greek classics translated from Arabic. (lost classics w/ fall of W roman Empire in 400s). Professorships of math, optics, & astronomy (all of low prestige) set up for union of math & natural philosophy, hallmark of Sci Rev. o Renaissance played role in kickstarting sci rev Patrons fueled sci projects after artists started using geometry to crate 3D perspectives Looked @ world in math sense Rediscovered more classics (Ptolemy's geography, Theophrastus' botany) o Ottomans' siege of Constantinople in 1453 play role w/ Christian dudes fleeing to Italy w/ more ancient texts to be rediscovered & learned from o New Tech helped kick start More ppl wanted books after printing press was invented in 1456. Ppl = desperate to read about unknown things from Asia & the Americas o Tech from exploration efforts helped launch sci rev 1484 w/ king of Portugal asking mathematicians to develop an instrument to help sailors find lat. Exploration led to invention of telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum, clock, microscope, & air pump, which were used for sci observations crucial for the sci rev o Astrology helped launch it too b/c most ppl attributed the movements of planets & stars to events on earth. o Magic & alchemy helped too b/c of the idea of things having occult qualities. (magnet & iron w/ attraction seen as sympathy for another) The Copernican Hypothesis Nicolaus Copernicus-(lived 1473-1543) a Prussian guy who loved Ren. Italy, studied med, church law, & astronomy. Didn't care for Ptolemy's way (earth was center of universe and were inaccurate), & opted for Greek way that the sun was center of universe. o After 1st coming up w/ theory based on Aristotle's spheres and the divinity of the circle, he waited till 1543 to publish for fear of being wrong o Copernican Hypothesis-the idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe. Had enormous sci & religious implications Solved star mystery Theorized the universe was staggeringly huge Used math instead of philosophy for justification, upsetting traditional hierarchy of disciplines. Destroyed Aristotelian physics w/ earth as another planet Started question of where was heaven & throne of God Protestants supported his ideas, Catholics declared it false b/c it didn't comply w/ doctrines of Bible. Some just agreed w/ his criticisms of Ptolemy, not his theory. Traditional astronomy doubted in 1572 w/ new star (an exploding one) & in 1577 w/ new comet. Celestial spheres were not perfect. Brahe, Kepler, & Galileo: Proving Copernicus Right Tycho Brahe--- (lived 1546-1601) Danish noble who studied astronomy, taking detailed observations of the new star in 1572. Received generous funding from Danish king o Rudolph II of Holy Roman Empire funded him, had him move to Prague & study. o Recorded w/ meticulous naked eye the sky, part Ptolemaic, part Copernican. Sun & planets revolved around earth-moon system Recorded the Rudolphine Tables & compiled most massive & accurate data at the time of his life Johannes Kepler--- (lived 1571-1630) German mathematician who suffered from smallpox, so limited eyesight & hand movement, believed that universe was built upon mysterious mathematical relationships. Was the guy who reworked Brahe's data after his dezath. o B/c Ptolemy was wrong & so was Copernicus in some ways, he developed 3 new laws of astronomy 1) planets' orbits are elliptical 2) speed of orbit is not uniform, nearer to the sun, more rapidly a planet will move First 2 laws published in the New Astronomy (1609) that revolutionized theory of the cosmos 3) time to orbit around the sun is related to the distance a planet is from the sun o United cosmology and mathematics by proving sun-centered universe, demolishing validity of Ptolemy or Aristotle, & finished Rudolphine Tables (which were used for years after) o Pioneered field of optics w/ invention of improved telescope o Mathematics that furnished basics for integral geometry calcs o Made horoscopes, living based upon them. o Had unorthodox Lutheran upbringing, mother tried as witch in 1620, and wrote fictional story about traveling to the moon (created a lot of controversy) Galileo Galilei--- (lived 1564-1642) Florentine mathematician that studied mechanics & consolidated the experimental method o Experimental Method-the approach, pioneered by Galileo, that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation. Important b/c this is still used by scientists today o Focused on proving Aristotelian physics wrong w/ law on inertia proposed b/c of experiments done showing uniform force of gravity. Law of Inertia-a law formulated by Galileo that states that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, and that an object continues in motion forever unless stropped by some external force. o Applied experimental methods to astronomy, proving Copernicus right by discovering 4 of Jupiter's moons after making himself a telescope. Also studied the moon and wrote the Sidereal Messenger in 1610 describing his observations o Published Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, and Pope Urban VIII put him on trial for heresy, so he recanted all his statements in 1631, cursing his Copernican errors One corner in Western civ is being turned. Historians still follow in Galileo's footsteps similarly by studying past the ways he studied the stars/the balls 1597, Kepler sends Galileo a copy of his theory of heliocentricism, which Galileo says is too early to endorse b/c of Reformation of Catholic church & Kepler's & Copernicus's works being on the List of Forbidden Books as heretical. Newton's Synthesis By 1640, Kepler, Brahe, & Galileo's work was largely accepted Sir Isaac Newton-(lived 1642-1727) English scientist who studied the movement of planets and objects on earth. Rejected the Holy Trinity, and loved alchemy. o Searched for the elixir of life o Studied science to figure out the divine plan o Made most discoveries during break from Cambridge in 1664- 1666 like physics ideas, law of universal gravitation, centripetal force, and acceleration. Weren't published o Studied optics & believed scientists needed to experiment to find properties & then hypothesize the explanations. o Published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1684, integrating the laws of astronomy of Copernicus, Kepler, & physics of Galileo, Newton's own laws of motion, and math laws for mechanics. Took 200+ years for scientists to figure out all implications of his work o Law of Universal Gravitation-Newton's law that all objects are attracted to ones another & that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects' quantity of matter & inversely proportional to the square of the distanced between them. Combined Kepler's elliptical movements & Galileo's balls Contested by German mathematician Gottfried von Leibniz for occultness of it Newton believed his observed a lot but in grand scheme didn't discover much. Most important scientist in history of science 16.2 Important Changes in Scientific Thinking Bacon, Descartes, & the Scientific Method Francis Bacon--- (lived 1561-1626) English politician & writer who didn't use Aristotle's methods, preferring those of Brahe and Galileo, analyzing specimens & comparing them empirical research) instead of speculating on the subject (Aristotelian). o Formalized empiricism, and brought it to use as Lord Chancellor under James I, creating the Royal Society (where scholars met and discussed findings) Empiricism-a theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation & experimentation rather than deductive reason & speculation. Showed limitations of antitheoretical nature w/ inability to appreciate mathematical reasoning. Rene Descartes--- (lived 1596-1650) French philosopher who served in 30 Yrs' War, made big discovery @ 23 in mathematics o Discovered the relationship between geometry & algebra (being able to express geo figs as alg. Equations & vice versa) o Studied nature of matter, determined that vacuums couldn't exist b/c each action had an equal & opposite reaction, and the chain continues forever. Newton rejected most of Descartes ideas, but believed in a mechanical universe (the equal reaction thing). o Developed a philosophy that was big in Netherlands &France, dividing that physical from the spiritual in Cartesian dualism Cartesian Dualism-Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter. Founded b/c Descartes realized that everything could be doubted once that senses were doubted. Rivaled experimental philosophy Showed the inadequacy of rationalism in his methods by not using inductive reasoning at all. Both Descartes's & Bacon's works are combined today in modern sci method. Medicine, the Body, & Chemistry Galen's medicinal practices held same weight as Aristotle's for astronomy. o Believed 4 humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, & yellow bile o Illnesses caused by out of balance humors >>> leads to bloodletting Paracelsus-Swiss physician pioneered use of chems in meds for what he saw as chem imbalances. Andreas Vesalius---dissected ppl to study anatomy. Published On the Structure of the Human Body revolutionizing the understanding of anatomy William Harvey--- (lived 1578-1657) English royal physician that discovered the circulation of blood through veins & arteries. Discovered that heart acts like a pump. Robert Boyle--- (lived 1627-1691) Irishman who created 1st vacuum & discovered the world was made up of atoms through experiments. o Founded Boyle's law in 1662 that the pressure of gas varies inversely with its volume. Empire & Natural History Scholars attribute impact of sci rev to Europe's colonies on the accumulation & traveling of knowledge about the natural world Catalogues of forms of life in Euro, Asia, & the Americas were published by modern scholars' w/ drawings & descriptions of usefulness in trade, meds, food, & other concerns Most new sci knowledge came from funded sci expeditions funded by European gov'ts. o Spain's physician of King Phil II spent time in New Spain looking @ tribal meds General pop loved reading about these expeditions, forgetting about the translators, naturalists, guides, & practitioners that made the expeditions possible Craze extended from aristocrats to middle class amateurs. Museums were started b/c of donations of private collections Science & Society Sci Rev impacted society o 1) rise of international science community based on shared interests Field based on new findings, so v competitive o 2) Gov't intervention & guidance in certain fields of research, sci community tied w/ gov't agendas. Royal Society (England), Paris (1666), and Berlin (1700) Caused sci community to be critical of authority, inspire others to question traditions Artisans needed for experience making instruments used for science. Many universities didn't accept women. Barriers rose due to the rationality of the field. o Universities in Italy accepted Women They made wax anatomical models or were illustrators Joined small science communities & participated in salons, sci experiments, & writing treatises. Some participated in full philosophical discussion as well (Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia on Descartes's mind-body dualism Europe still attracted to poli & social structure of tradition, but most elite in W Europe embraced new ideas in sci. 16.3 The Enlightenment The Enlightenment---the influential intellectual & cultural movement of the late 1600s & 1700s that introduced a new world view based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress o Rationalism---a secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, & everything was to be submitted to reason. The Emergence of the Enlightenment Enlightenment thinkers looked toward future instead of sin & salvation (medieval & reformation), or to the classics (Ren.). Believed human probs should be dealt w/ through the sci method. Spread of cultural knowledge caused Euros to ? what was right/wrong o Euros shaving beards, but having long hair VS Turks shaving heads, but having long beards o What's culturally right is relative, and if anything is possible, what's right of wrong? Blanket of doubt spread over Europe o Ppl wondered if religious conformity was necessary o Ppl wondered if religious truth could be determined in certainty. Doubt in religion spread to doubt in poli Caused confrontations btw pop & state Pierre Bayle-(lived 1647-1706) French Huguenot that sought refuge in Dutch Repub, published Historical & Critical Dictionary (1697) about religious beliefs & persecution. Developed skepticism o Said nothing can be known beyond all doubt Baruch Spinoza--- (lived 1632-1677) Dutch Jew that used Descartes's deductive reasoning & rationalism, rejecting idea of mind-body dualism, instead that they were 1 entity & god + nature were one in the same. o Got excommunicated for radical views o Model of personal virtue & intellectual autonomy Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz--- (lived 1646-1716) German philosopher who disagreed w/ Cartesian dualism & Spinoza's monism. Believed in infinite # of substances (monads) from which matter is composed. o Ours is best b/c built by omnipotent god. o Discovered calculus o Optimism ridiculed by Voltaire John Locke--- (lived 1632-1704) English physician in Royal Society who believed our ideas are based on experience o Sensationalism-the idea that all human ideas/thoughts are produced because of sensory impressions o Born w/ blank tablet, development determined by edu & social institutes. o Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding & Two Treatises of Civil Gov't. Provided justification for Bacon's emphasis on observation & experimentation The Influence of the Philosophes Philosophes a group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their humans in the Age of Enlightenment 3 reasons why France was hub of Enlightenment o 1) French was lang of the edu o 2) unpopularity of Louis XV, reform needed o 3) the French philosophers' goal to reach broader audience of the elite o Republic of Letters-an imaginary transnational realm of the well edu who were main target audience of French philosophers (Ren. Idea) Montesquieu-(lived 1689-1755) great philosopher who criticized European customs in the Persian Letters, which was 1st maj work of the French Enlightenment. o Studied history & politics o Applied scientific method to solve issues of gov't (Spirit of the Laws) by studying repubs, monarchies, & despotisms. o Believed history & geography influenced gov't o Believed in separation of powers 13 high courts of parliaments Poli power to be shared & divided amongst the classes & legal estates Influenced USA constitution & constitution of France in 1791 Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire)---- (lived 1694-1778) French mid-class guy who is most known Enlightenment philosophe. Was arrested in early career, & moved to England & appreciated English liberties & institutions o Back in France, Voltaire meets Madam du Chatelet. Chatelet was a woman who studied physics & math Made the only translation of Newton's Principia into French Believed women's lack of roles in science was due to unequal edu. Feminist. Became Voltaire's companion, & lived w/ him o Voltaire wrote praising England & English science Mixed glorification of sci & reason w/ appeal for better humans & institutions o Voltaire = reformer, not revolutionary Believed best to do was new monarch, praised Louis XIV & Frederick the Great of Prussia o Didn't believe in socio-econ equality Believed in equality of the law: to protect the ppl from the ambitions of the strong gov't o Criticized Catholic Church, believed God to be a person who made the universe & didn't care of human affairs. For religious tolerance Denis Diderot's Encyclopedia--- a group effort that set out to teach ppl how to think critically & examine the whole of human knowledge. Goal was to change the general way of thinking o Still taught today w/ critical thinking taught in schools o Was resisted by French gov't & Catholic Church o Criticized intolerance, justice, social institutions, religion, immorality, & talked of science & industrial arts o Sums up world view of the Enlightenment o Done so b/c edu was power to allow for socio, econ, & poli progress Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau--- (lived 1712-1778) Son of Swiss watchmaker who was part of Enlightenment for intellect. Contributed articles to the Encyclopedia, but believed the philosophes were plotting against him, breaking ties. o Committed to individual freedom Believed rationality & civilization ruined individuals Warm spontaneous feeling, not cold intellect Contributed to the romantic movement of late 1700s o Believed in rigid gender roles Women needed to be passive, bad for them to want attention, pull strings in poli, & be social. Needed to stay home & care for kids Despised Parisian elite women & criticized them. o The Social Contract--- (pub 1762) a contribution to poli theory based on concepts of the general will & pop sovereignty. General will = sacred & absolute, reflecting common interests, not will of maj but for farsighted few Little noticed in Rousseau's day, but influenced the USA & French Rev & harbinger of reaction against Enlightenment ideas o Most influential voices of Enlightenment The International Enlightenment Enlightenment moved ppl, thoughts, & ideas all over the world Republic of Letters had networks in Euro, Americas, Russia, & E Europe, along trade routes in Africa & Asia as well. Catholic Enlightenment--- the Enlightenment outside of France that sought to reconcile reason w/ faith & renew/reform the church from within. Scottish Enlightenment---centered in Edinburgh, emphasis on common sense & sci reasoning. o Effect of issue of the Act of Union, allowing for freedom from poli crisis & est. of 1st public edu system in Europe o David Hume--- (lived 1711-1776) a figure in Scottish Enlightenment w/ focus on civic morality & religious skepticism. Believed that human brain = bundle of impressions, which were sensory experiences w/ habits joining them together. Believed reason couldn't tell us everything (ie. Origin of universe, or existence of God) Paradoxical Adam Smith---fig in Scottish Enlightenment that said thriving comm life produced civic virtue b/c of competition, fair play, & individual autonomy. o Attacked laws & regs preventing commerce from reaching full capacity British Enlightenment influenced by Scottish & English thinkers for checks & balances USA Enlightenment influenced by Ben Franklin & Thomas Jefferson, leaders in American Rev Enlightenment debated in German speaking regions o Immanuel Kant--- (lived 1724-1804) a prof in E Prussia that posed 'What is Enlightenment' in pamphlet. Believed it to be the courage to use your own understanding Intellectuals write their reason, enlightenment follows Believed must obey all laws even in private life Tried to reconcile absolute monarchy & religious faith w/ growing public sphere Italy is where some developments in Enlightenment thought took place o Cesare Beccaria--- (lived 1734-1794) edu noble that published On Crimes and Punishment that criticized the penal system for use of torture, arbitrary imprisonment, & capital punishment. Wanted to prevent crimes instead of rely on punishment. Urban Culture & Life in the Public Sphere Public Sphere an intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the ppl came together to discuss societal, econ, & poli matters. Was ambiguous, made up of elite & bourgeoisie pop, and centered at salons, coffeehouses/cafes, theaters, etc. Causes of the development of the Public Sphere o Euro book production & consumption skyrocketed o People read more arts & sciences instead of religious & devotional books o Reading Revolution-the transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal & communal reading of religious texts to a society where literacy was commonplace & reading material was broad & diverse. Conversation, debate & discussion played critical role in Enlightenment o Salon-regular social gathering held by talented & rich Parisians in their homes, where philosophes & their followers met to discuss lit, sci, & philosophy. Evolved from the precieuses Mostly hosted by women (salonnieres) Important for up & coming writers b/c of intros to rich & powerful ppl Represented accommodations btw ruling class & philosophes Allowed for socio-class influenced b/c mid-class, elites, & philosophes intermingled. Being critical became a trend Rococo-a pop style in Europe in 1720-1780, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, & starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids. o Created idea that feminine influence in drawing room yielded a polite society. Opportunities for women emerged w/ more edu Did not mean equal rights, elite women still subordinate & philosophes perfectly ok w/ that Women lacked rights, but so did most euro men who were all poor Salons were exclusive, had to be elite to be invited. o Coffeehouses emerge & are meccas for discussion Societies, book clubs, libraries, & newspapers lead way to the creation of the public sphere. Enlightenment geared for upper mid-class & elites b/c the commoners had no time & edu to discuss philosophy o Commoners were excluded from salons & academies, but learned of ideas through circulation 16.4 Enlightened Absolutism Most philosophes believed that poli reform came from ruler, not citizens. Rulers wanted to keep power, Benevolent Absolutism is the answer Gov't was interested in philosophical ideas, & were interested in improving society Enlightened Absolutism-term coined by historians to described the rule of 1700s monarch who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, & tolerance. o Fused Enlightenment ideas w/ those of religious reform EX: Prussia, Russia, & Austria. France experienced enlightened absolutism after the French Rev in 1789. Frederick the Great of Prussia Frederick II--- (r. 1740-1786) (AKA Frederick the Great) ruler of Prussia, son of Frederick William I who had an interest in culture & lit instead of army. o Inherited army & when Maria Theresa of Austria came to power, he invaded Silesia along w/ other countries in the War of Austrian Succession, defying an agreement. Doubled pop & made Prussia a European Great Power Maria Theresa of Austria-Habsburg empress who inherited the land after her father Charles VI. Was guaranteed throne in the Pragmatic Sanction, which got defied in Frederick's invasion of Austria. Started the 7 yrs' war. o Seven Years War---- (from 1756-1763) war fought when Maria Theresa formed an alliance w/ France & Russia to take back Silesia. The goal was to divide Prussia amongst themselves. War ended when Peter III took throne b/c Peter liked Frederick.. War caused Frederick to look inside his country & promote Enlightenment thought Improved schools, promoted religious & philosophical tolerance, advancement of knowledge & permitting scholars to publish. o Primary tools were laws & bureaucracy Laws were simplified, torture abolished, & trials short & impartial Frederick claimed himself to be servant of the state (no divine right of kings) Still had serfs on his estate & strengthened nobility who controlled army & bureaucracy of Prussian state Reformed gov't functions w/ cameralism Cameralism--- View that monarchy was the best form of gov't, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, & that, in turn, the state should use its resources & authority to increase pub good. o Shared Enlightenment belief in rationality, progress, & utilitarianism. Catherine the Great of Russia Catherine the Great of Russia---- (r. 1762-1796) Russian ruler born in Prussia to noble father & mother related to Romanovs, adored by philosophes, & most remarkable ruler of her age. o Married Peter III, & plotted & executed his murder w/ help of her lover. Done so out of his unpop from ending the 7 Yrs' War. Ruled in an Enlightened manner w/ 3 goals o 1) Wanted to westernize Russia Encouraged architects, musicians, & philosophes. Printed the Encyclopedia & sent $ for Deridot, wrote plays, setting tone for Russian nobility o 2) Domestic Reform Restricted torture, allowed limited religious tolerance, improved schools, & strengthened local gov't Philosophes impressed, hoping for more reforms 1773 Pugachev led an uprising of serfs, was defeated by the royal army & executed. Caused her to give power over serfs to nobles & expand it into Ukraine, while excluding nobles from taxes & state service o Serfdom = most oppressive stage o 3) Territorial Expansion Defeated Mongols Partition of Poland After nearly disrupting balance of power between Russia & Austria, Poland was divided amongst Prussia, Russia, & Austria. Russia got all the pieces by 1795. The Austrian Habsburgs Maria Theresa---- (r. 1740-1780) Austrian Habsburg, daughter of Charles VI, had more traditional views of power politics, against Enlightenment teachings, unlike son Joseph II. o Issued reforms 1) church reform, limit influence of papacy 2) admin renovations, taxing nobles, & soothing provincial differences 3) stimulated ag production, reduced power of landlords over serfs Joseph II-son of Maria Theresa, Habsburg ruler who was for Enlightenment application to gov't. o Abolished serfdom in 1781 o 1789 allowed peasants to pay landlords in cash instead of labor Peasants disagreed b/c they didn't have cash to give Leopold II--- brother of Joseph II, Habsburg ruler who reigned from 1790-1792. o Undid Joseph's decree of cash payment, serfs had forced labor again Illustrated combination of old-fashioned state building & Enlightenment thought Blind spot in thought was lack of humane & Enlightened policies b/c they weren't thinking of social justice & equality. Jewish Life & the Limits of Enlightened Absolutism Ex of limitations of enlightened absolutism is emancipation of Jews o Jews @ time lived in ghettos, excluded from professions, & be ordered out Got jobs as bankers/merchants b/c of contacts across Europe Haskalah---the Jewish Enlightenment of the 2nd 1/2 of the 1700s, led by Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn. o Period of socio change where rabbinic controls loosened, & + interaction w/ Christians o Moses Mendelssohn---Prussian philosopher who led the Haskalah living from 1729-1786. Tolerance happened in some areas o Britain passed law in 1753, but was repealed o Joseph II made Jews eligible for militia service, admission to edu & artisanal trades, & removed the requirement of tagging the Jews w/ emblems. Some Jews feared assimilation might occur Not all monarchs emancipated Jews o Frederick II permitted freedom of Christian subjects o Catherine the Great, after conquering Poland (where a bunch of Jews lived) issued the Pale of Settlement (1791) where in lands of Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, & Belarus Jews were required to live. Remained until Russian Rev in 1917 France 1st country to liberate Jews w/ French Rev in 1789. o Jews gradually got rights. Section II: Focus Questions 1. Scientific Revolution = period of rapid scientific, mathematical, & political advancement based on the philosophy of empiricism & faith in the sixteenth & seventeenth centuries. a. Impacted Europe w/ Galileo's discovery of law of inertia b. The idea of heliocentrism c. Galileo's scientific method is still used today d. Bacon's empiricism, use samples & inductive reasoning instead of deductive reasoning & philosophy e. Descartes made geometric advancements that are still taught i. Believed in Cartesian Dualism (everything is either mind or matter) f. Harvey's findings of the circulatory system & that the heart is a pump are integral to medicinal practices today. g. Rise in international science community, and governments begin to intervene & guide certain fields of research. 2. Enlightenment was a period of influential intellectual & cultural movement in the late 1600s & 1700s that introduced a new world view based on the use of reason, the scientific method, & progress. Believed in rationalism. a. Caused by the scientific revolution i. Production of scientific method ii. Inductive reasoning thanks to Bacon's empiricism iii. Galileo's discovery that the sun was the center of the solar system didn't coincide w/Christian doctrines, so a move away from religious faith & speculation being end all be all. b. The Reformation i. Religious wars cause loss of faith because of death & destruction. ii. A break in denominations, Protestants veering away from Catholicism makes ppl start to question which is the right faith, causing confusion. c. Renaissance i. Brought humanism, the cultural & intellectual movement that emphasized human potential to attain excellence through direct study of the classics. 1. People turned to classics as a starting point, seeing as how they can be improved upon d. Reading Revolution helped develop public sphere, and had more people reading the philosophes' words. e. Goal was to create a completely rational human being that functioned on logic and reason. f. Resulted in philosophes who wrote about reform, thinking critically of everything, promoting individual liberty against a tyrannical government. g. Cultural knowledge spreading was a result, Russia became westernized. People, thoughts, and ideas were moved all over the world. 3. The Public Sphere = an intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where people came together to discuss societal, economic, political, or cultural matters. It was ambiguous, made up the aristocratic class, centered at salons, coffeehouses, theaters, etc. a. Developed b/c of Reading Revolution i. Literacy rates rose = more people are reading ii. More books being published iii. People are reading for enjoyment rather than for knowledge or faith b. Salons = aristocrats, needed an invitation, evolved from precieuses, created a trend of being critical c. Coffeehouses were less exclusive, a penny could get you a coffee & a spot for the day. i. Coffee was a symbol of stimulation, while alcohol was a symbol of numbing ii. Provided access to newspapers that weren't also published by gov't, spread of culture through discussion, and allowed for economic gossip d. Assisted in identity w/ Reformation-the Protestants had to gather & read to agree w/ Luther's ideas. e. Assisted in American Revolution with the leaders meeting in houses and pubs to discuss plans of action. 4. The Public Sphere is the internet in today's day in age. It's on Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, Instagram, and any other social media app. Coffeehouses still play a role, as poetry slams are hosted there. a. Played a role in advocacy w/ the Arab Springs movement through Facebook & social media. b. Creates cultural awareness of natural disasters in Haiti, Nepal, etc. c. Cultural exchange with the NaNoWriMo community that offers to beta read work, and that's people all over the world. d. Identity: internet allows for communities of people who like the same things. There's also clubs like the Tattler Post for veterans. 5. Printing Press and Reading Revolution were catalysts for Enlightenment thought a. Reading Revolution: boosted literacy rates, & people started reading more arts and science books instead of religious works b. Printing Press: published more books, and b/c more people were reading, they read publications and books were translated quickly so more people who didn't speak the language of publication could read them. 6. Enlightenment was a significant turning point for ideas of race at that time. a. Immanuel Kant-said that people began as one species, but developed separately based on climatic conditions i. Environmental Determinism ii. Also said that the original race was N German (which was where he was from) b. Based on the idea of taxonomy for plants and animals, why not people now c. Not all Europeans were racist i. Deridot & Montesquieu relied upon non-Europeans for info about European abuses ii. Slaves recounted their stories of slavery at the time iii. Philosophes noted that civilization didn't even begin in Europe, but in Mesopotamia (Iraq), so how can they say they're the first to be civilized when the Mesopotamians used a credit system of economy like we do today. d. Huge repercussions i. It doesn't go away: civilizing missions of the 1800s, Nazism in Germany in the 1930s & 1940s, e. Not until post WWII that cultural relativism comes back with Said's philosophies, as revisionists see that Montaigne was right in cultural revisionism (no one culture is superior or inferior to another. It's relative). 7. Enlightenment thought was infused with the governments of several countries during the 1700s a. Prussia: After Frederick the Great lost the 7 Years' War, he focused on improving schools, promoting tolerance, advancement of knowledge while permitting scholars to publish their theses. i. Frederick simplified laws, abolished torture, and made trials short and impartial to one side. b. Russia: Catherine the Great wanted the westernize Russia & did so by encouraging philosophers to come to Russia along with musicians and architects. i. Restricted torture, allowed some religious tolerance, improved schools, and all that. c. Austria: Maria Theresa issued reforms for the church, taxed nobles to create an Enlightenment-like fairness. i. Joseph II abolished serfdom, a very Locke-like move 8. The Jewish Enlightenment was called the Haskalah, and was led by Moses Mendelssohn. a. The Jewish Enlightenment led to tolerance in some areas i. Joseph II making Jews eligible for military service, admission to schools, and removed the requirement for tagging. ii. Following French Revolution of 1789, French Jews were liberated and over time received rights. b. Important because it helped make strides in getting right for the Jews after they'd been blamed for the Black Death. A bit of a time of making amends for European society. 9. The scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment have several origins in other a. b. c. d. 10. a. b. time periods we have already covered. Universities rising in the 1300s in Western Europe i. They depended on learning from classics, and professorships in science areas became the hallmark of the Scientific Revolution Renaissance played role w/ Da Vinci making art a math, causing patrons to fund scientific projects after they began seeing the world in a mathematical sense i. Rediscovery of classics led to more theories to question and prove The fall of Constantinople in 1453 i. Christians fled with ancient texts to be reintroduced to Europeans New Technology i. Stuff from the age of exploration like the astrolabe, barometer, clock, microscope, etc, helped aid scientific observations. The Enlightenment was influenced by the Scientific Revolution The experimental method i. After its invention, people tried to model their life and solve all their problems that way The discovery that the earth wasn't the center of the universe i. Made people question the Bible if it was taken literally, causing people to turn away from a faith a bit and focus on rationalism c. Empiricism i. The use of rational analysis came into play when the Enlightenment's goal was to create a critically thinking, rational human being that wasn't bother by a bunch of emotion. 11. predecessors were pretty liberal The Enlightened Absolutist rulers, when compared to their a. Austria i. Ferdinand II was against religious tolerance, confiscating Protestant lands ii. Joseph II literally allowed Jews to join the army, go to school, etc. b. Prussia i. Frederick William focused on expanded his state, similarly to Frederick the Great. ii. Frederick the Great also includes reforms to schools, bits of religious tolerance, and reform of internal matters. iii. Both kept serfdom though, and kept the government honest. c. Russia i. Both Catherine & Peter reformed schools ii. Both westernized the areas: Peter w/ cultural parties of both men & women; Catherine w/ the encouragement of the philosophes, musicians, and architects to do work in the country. d. It is not terribly accurate, but applies in ways that suggest the rulers were a bit more openminded than prior, considering Absolutism came up almost right after the religious wars.