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costs little money ● Usually located away from major population centers ● Shifting cultivation, Livestock ranching, Nomadic Herding, Commercial Grain Farming Types of Agriculture Shifting Cultivation ● Climate: Tropical ● Where: Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia • Types of Crops: Rice, Maize (Corn), Millet and Sorghum Intensive or Extensive: Extensive ● Commercial or Subsistence: Subsistence Description: Farmers move from one field to another: aka slash and burn agriculture because farmer's clear and fertilize the land by burning vegetation. When the soil loses fertility, the farmers move to a different plot of land and repeat Nomadic Herding/Pastoral Nomadism ● Climate: Drylands/Desert Where: Northern Africa, Southwest Asia, Central Asia, and East Asia Types of Livestock: Cattle, Camels, Reindeer, Goats, Yaks, Sheep, Horses Intensive or Extensive: Extensive Commercial or Subsistence:Subsistence ● ● ● Description: Nomads move herds to different pastures and trade meat, milk, and hydes. They rely upon the animals for survival, not profit. Livestock Ranching ● Climate: Drylands/Desert ● Where: Western North America, Southeastern South America, Central Asia, Australia, South America, Central Asia, Australia, South Africa Types of Livestock: Cattle, Goats, Sheep Intensive or Extensive: Extensive ● ● Commercial or Subsistence: Commercial Description: Commercial grazing of livestock. Eventually they will be sent to feedlots and then be sent to slaughter. ): ● Commercial Grain Farming ● Climate: Mid-Latitudes, too dry for mixed crop and livestock ● Where: US, Canada, Europe, Russia, Central Asia, China, South Asia • Types of Crops: Wheat ● Intensive or Extensive: Extensive Commercial or Subsistence: Commercial Description: Crops are grown primarily for human consumption. Farmers sell their output to manufacturers of food products, such as breakfast cereals and bread Market Gardening/Commercial Gardening/Truck Farming ● Climate: Warm Mid-Latitude ● Where: Southeastern US, Canada, Southeastern Australia Types of Crops:Fresh Fruits and Veggies, Lettuce, Broccoli, Apples, Oranges, Tomatoes ● Intensive or Extensive: Intensive (reliant on migrant laborers and machinery) Commercial or Subsistence: Commercial ● Description: Some of the fruits and vegetables are sold fresh to consumers, but most are sold to large processors for canning or freezing Plantation Agriculture ● Climate: Tropical Where: Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia Types of Crops: Commodity and specialty crops such as cacao, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, bananas, tobacco, tea, coconuts, and cotton Intensive or Extensive: Intensive (reliant on cheap labor from other colonies) Commercial or Subsistence: Commercial Description: A plantation that specializes in one crop that is transported for sale on the global market ● ● ● Mixed Crop and Livestock Climate: Cold and Warm Mid-Latitude Where: Midwestern United States and Canada, Central Europe Types of Livestock/Crops: Corn, Grains, Soybeans grown to feed livestock such as cattle and pigs Intensive or Extensive: Intensive (reliant on high amounts of capital and labor) ● Commercial or Subsistence: Commercial Description: Most money comes from the sale of livestock rather than crop outputs ● Mediterranean Climate: Mild, wet winters and dry, hot summers, coastal ● Where: Southern Europe and Northern Africa, Pacific Coast of the US, Chile, South Africa, Southern Australia ● Types of Crops: Grapes, olives, dates, Figs ● Intensive or Extensive: Intensive (land is scarce, hilly, and labor intensive) Commercial or Subsistence: Commercial ● Description: Orchards are common, crops produced for the global market Dairy Farming Climate: Mid-Latitudes Where: Northern US, Canada, Europe, Russia, India, and Brazil Types of Livestock: Cows for their milk Intensive or Extensive: Intensive (cows need to be milked twice a day; machinery) ● Commercial or Subsistence: Commercial ● Description: Dairy farmers typically sell their milk to wholesalers who later distribute it to retailers. Retailers then sell it to consumers in shops or at home. 5.2-Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods Rural Survey Methods Metes and Bounds: ● Utilization of landmarks and physical features to establish boundary lines Results in irregular shaped plots of land Used in short distances Long Lot ● Seen in Great Britain and North america ● Long strips of land Seen in France, Spain, and North America Intention of giving all landowners equal access of the resources Township and Range ● Pioneered by thomas jefferson ● • Rectangles and a grid system Each township is six miles by six miles Keep track of land sales and purchases Utilizes a uniform and survey method Rural settlement patterns are classified as... Clustered-throughout European history, rural residents lived in groups of homes in close proximity to one another ● Farmland and pasture surround the settlement Share resources and the community have to walk to farmland Metes and bounds survey methods Dispersed-Major characteristic is that settlements are isolated and dispersed over the land area ● US government promoted westward expansion by giving farmers land (typically 160 acres) if they agreed to live and farm on it Reflective of individual values and ownership of the land ● Township and Range Survey method Linear-Settlement is organized along a LINE, typically associated with a transportation system or physical feature like a river or coast. ● Long Lot survey method 5.3-Agricultural Origins and Diffusion Agricultural Hearths Hearth: The geographic origin of a trait, characteristic, innovation or other concept. Remember that it is where something was born Domestication: The deliberate effort to grow plants and raise animals, making plants and animals adapt to human demands. Agricultural Hearths: The separate locations in which groups of people began to domesticate plants and animals. The Fertile Crescent (10k years ago) Aka the Bread Basket Crops: Barley, wheat, lentils, olives, oats, rye ● Animals: Sheep, goats, cattle, pigs ● Southeast Asia (10k years ago) Crops: Sugar cane, taro, coconut, mango, bananas, grapefruit, rice, tea East Asia (9,500 years ago) ● Crops: Rice, Soybeans, Walnuts Sub-Saharan Africa (7k years ago) ● Crops: Coffee, cowpeas, millet, African rice, sorghum, yams Mesoamerica (5.5k years ago) ● Crops: Sweet potatoes, beans, maize, chiles, peppers, cotton, cassava, lima beans, potatoes, and tomatoes Animals: Llamas and Alpaca Independent Inventions: Occurs when a trait has many cultural hearth; the idea that the trait developed separately without being influenced by other cultural groups. (The same trait from different areas, made into different inventions) Commonalities Among Agricultural Hearths ● Fertile soil in river valleys Availability of water Moderate Climates Collective societal structures O More food surplus=more population ● The Diffusion of Agriculture Historic Diffusion of Agriculture Contagious diffusion:Agriculture first diffused to the immediate surrounding areas of the hearth through close contact and proximity between farmers o Agricultural and animal domestication originated in the Fertile Crescent and then diffused through Turkey and into Eastern Europe • Immigration and Migration: Example of relocation diffusion. As people migrate, they bring food ingredients seeds and animals with them ● O Stimulus diffusion- As people moved into new locations, seeds may not be as prosperous due to different physical conditions Resulting in the adaptation of farming methods using the agricultural knowledge the farmer had before O Horses weren't native to america until they started domesticating them here O Basically using previous knowledge and resources to farm O Trade Routes O The Silk Road: Over 4k miles of trade routes that connected china with Europe for trade ■ Resulted in the spread of plants and animals throughout East Asia, Africa and Europe. ■ Contagious Diffusion The Columbian Exchange O The exchange of goods and ideas between North America, Africa and Europe initiated by Christopher Columbus' voyage to the Americas in 1492 ■ Resulted in the spread of plants, animals, and diseases between the 'Old World' and 'New World' ■ Contagious Diffusion. Literally Modern Diffusion of Agriculture 1. Green Revolution: Spread high yield varieties of crops around the world. For example, new varieties of plants replace traditional crops in places like Mexico and India 2. Demand for Meat: Significantly increased due to increasing wealth across the globe and the diffusion of fast food chains like McDonalds. 5.4-The Second Agricultural Revolution The First Agricultural Revolution-Neolithic Era ● When and where: 12,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent Diffusion: Trade Routes and the Columbian Exchange ● Characteristics ● Origin of farming- First domestication of plants and animals where previously societies had been nomadic, hunter and gatherers. Subsistence farming: Farmers grow the crops for their own consumption, not for sale Methods: Simple hand tools, manual labor The Second Agricultural Revolution Where and when: 1750, Great Britain ● Diffusion: Through Great Britain and Europe and the US Causes of the Second Agricultural Revolution 1. Industrial Revolution: The use of technology (mechanization) to increase production and distribution of agricultural goods a. Cotton gin, seed drill, steel plough, barbed wire b. High yields → surplus of food → population growth and longer life expectancy C. More technology → less manual labor decrease in the number of farmers. 2. Enclosure Movement: Series of laws enacted by the British government that enabled landowners to purchase and enclose land for their own use which had previously been communal land used by peasant farmers. Resulted in: a. Emergence of commercial agriculture (selling crops) b. Fewer and larger farms mean decease in farm owners which means improvements and farming techniques which leads to a decrease in agricultural laborers c. Urbanization: Mass migration of people into the cities to work in newly emerging factories Characteristics of the Second Agricultural Revolution • Crop Rotation: Planting the same Crop each year can deplete the natural resources in the soil. Farmers began rotating crops planted each year to sustain the fertility of the soul O Led to increased crop yields, experimentation with fertilization techniques ● Transportation Improvements and New Markets O Trains and steamboats allowed farmers to ship their products further and at a lower cost 5.5-The Green Revolution The Green Revolution Where and when:1950s and 1960s ● Diffusion: Research of MDCS spread to developing countries in Latin America and asia Causes ● Massive population growth occurring in the 20th century- mostly developing regions of the world Norman Borlaug- Researcher that traveled to Mexico to improve agricultural and biotechnological techniques in order to feed the growing population of the world Characteristics Development of higher-yielding, disease resistant, faster-growing varieties of grains (rice, corn, wheat) O Hybrids and Genetically Modified Organisms Double Cropping: Growing more than one crop per year Increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation techniques and machinery in developing countries Positive Results ● Higher yields on the same amount of cultivated land O Increased yields → surplus → sustain population growth begin exporting crops → more wealth better farming technology → more crops Led to self sufficiency in developing regions like Latin America, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia O Lower food prices → Increased access O Negative Results ● Environmental Consequences O Mass use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides led to runoff in local water systems that impacted ecosystems, habitats, polluted water, and poisoned animals O Intensive double cropping systems and aggressive irrigation led to soil erosion and salinization O More machinery means more use of fossil fuels which leads to more air, sound, and water pollution Loss of biodiversity O ● Gender Consequences O O O Women are excluded from learning or having decision making power due to their lack of economic and social equality. This contributes to further gender inequality Poor success in Africa O O O In many developing countries PRIOR to the green revolution, women were in charge of the farming labor The development of new technologies and techniques were communicated to male heads of households O Harsh and diverse environmental conditions, droughts, soil fertility etc. Lack of infrastructure and reliable transportation networks African crops such as sorghum, millet, cassava, yams, and cowpeas were not included in the genetic research that resulted in GMOS and hybridization Lack of government investment to kick start the process 5.6 and 5.7- Economic and Spatial Organization of Agriculture How do economic forces impact agriculture? Subsistence ● Crops and livestock are grown to feed the farmer, family, and community. May sell small surplus at local markets Access to markets are limited and farmers have less access to credit to pay for expensive farming improvements and labor O Little income from farming O Manual and animal labor, hand tools O Lack of infrastructure to facilitate global trade Periphery Countries: Rural Africa, parts of Asia, and Latin America Commercial ● Crops and livestock are grown to be sold on the global market. Purpose is to make a profit, not to sustain the farmers' family Access to markets and credit allow commercial farmers to purchase modern farm equipment, advanced technologies and large plots of land O Well developed infrastructure: Banking, transportation, and agricultural supply industries Core and Semi-Periphery Countries The Economy of Commercial Agriculture Monocropping or Monoculture The cultivation of one or two crops that are rotated seasonally ● Allows for specialization and maximizes efficiency leads to higher yields O Profitable for plantations and large corporate farms Can strip nutrients from the soil, decrease biodiversity, or put small farmers out of business O Supply and demand means that if there is more supply than demand, price goes down Agribusiness ● The large-scale system that includes the production, processing, and distribution, financial funding, and research of farming, replacing small family farms with giant agribusiness corporations Economies of Scale ● Large scale farming is cost effective due to lower bulk prices for farming supplies and technologies Modern equipment, fertilizers, pesticides, GMO and hybrid seeds all contribute to higher yields O Bigger purchases due to bigger farms → Cheaper Prices O When production increases, the costs of production decrease O Results in less family owned farms Technological Advances Further increase the cost of operating farms but also increases the efficiency of agriculture Increases the carrying capacity of the land, higher yields Commodity Chains Complex network that connects places of production with distribution to consumers ● Due to improvements in agricultural technology, agribusiness, and globalization; farmers tend to raise crops and animals far from their final markets and consumers can purchase them at low prices Bid-Rent Theory: The value of land is influenced by its relationship to the market Most desirable and accessible land is near the market and costs the most money O Farmers are able to purchase LESS land so farming is typically INTENSIVE in order to earn a profit The least desirable and accessible land is located furthest from the market and costs the least money O Farmers are able to purchase MORE land and farming is typically EXTENSIVE and can earn a profit 5.8 - Von Thunen Model Review Bid-Rent Theory Bid-Rent theory is the theory that the value of land is influenced by its relationship to the market (see above for other bullet points) Von Thunen's Model for Rural Agricultural Land Use Context North German farmer and economist Published An Isolated State in 1826 ● Spatial patterns of farming practices in his community ● Assumptions Isotropic Plane: All land is flat and the physical environment is the same everywhere No barriers to transportation Farmers using oxcarts to transport goods to market ● Major Idea Transportation costs are proportional to the distance from the market ● The perishability of the product and transportation costs to the market factor into a farmers decisions regarding agricultural practices ● Spatial Perspective: Thinking about how and why things are positioned where they are Market/Urban Center The very center ring of 5 ● Assumed that there was a market located in an isolated, self sufficient state without external influences Assumed commercial agricultural system in which farmers will maximize their profits ● Assumed that there was a single market destination for farmers' harvest Dairy Farming and Market Gardening One ring out from the center ● Crops: Dairy and Produce ● Perishability: Milk and produce spoil easily, so they must be located near the markets to ensure fresh products • Transportation: Difficult to transport and must be transported quickly due to perishability ● Intensive farming due to high value of land located near the central market Forests Second Ring from the center . Crops: Timber • Perishability: Not perishable ● Transportation: Difficult and very expensive to transport; very heavy ● Firewood was an essential good in the 1800s in order to build fires for cooking, heating homes, and as a building material Grains and Cereal Crops Third ring from the center Crops: Grains and Cereals Perishability: Less perishable ● Transportation: Not fragile, bulky or heavy; Easier to transport Extensive farming becomes profitable due to the cost of the land (distance from market) Livestock Ranching Outermost Ring ● Livestock • Perishability: Not perishable while they're alive • Transportation: Very low cost because animals were walked to the market ● Land is less desirable due to distance from the market. This makes it less expensive, so ranchers can rent or buy large quantities to herd their animals The Limitations of Von Thunen's Model • Multiple market centers across the world today which causes global supply chains Food preservation techniques such as tin cans and refrigeration makes food less likely to spoil on the way to the market • Improved transportation infrastructure O Complex networks of shipping cargo cars via ship, train, roads, and air routes ● Government policies about land use to encourage the growth of a particular crop ● Wood is no longer used as the major source of heating, cooking, or building material O Forests are no longer near communities as much • Non-isotopic planes: Physical features impact the shape of the model ● Specialty Farming: Regions of particular climates and soil types like mediterranean agriculture are missing from the model 5.9 - The Global System of Agriculture Food is part of global trade network Global Supply Train: Agribusinesses organized at the global scale; encompasses all elements of growing, harvesting, processing, transporting, marketing, consuming, and disposing of food for people O A result of industrialization of agriculture Dependent Countries ● MDCs benefit most from global trade of food o Many times food is produced in a LDC and is then transported to a MDV LDCs that export food can receive higher profit from MDCs O Makes LDCs dependent on trading with MDCs Environmental Issues Due to less technology and advancements, LDCs are more likely to cause issues such as destruction of forests, water pollution, soil erosion, etc. Infrastructure affects global market ● MDCs have better access to transportation systems compared to LDCS O Makes it easier to sell food LDC governments do not have the money needed to support LDC farmers (roads, energy sources, good infrastructure) 5.10 - Consequences of Agricultural Practices Agricultural Practices Alter the Landscape Shifting Cultivation ● Practiced in periphery and semi-perphery countries- South America, Central and West Africa and Southeast Asia Farmers cultivate the land until the soil becomes infertile O Fallow (uncultivated) period is supposed to allow the land to recover Soil degradation if land does not have an adequate fallow period Slash and Burn Agriculture ● Type of shifting cultivation that permanently alters the landscape ● O Method: Cutting and burning forests in order to create fields for cultivation ■ Ash from burning nutrients and fertilizes crops Results in deforestation and soil erosion O Half of the world's topsoil has been lost in the past 150 years Terrace Farming • Typically practiced by the subsistence farmers in mountainous areas Steps are build into the sides of hills and mountain sides in order to cultivate water-intensive crops like rice O During rainfall, the water floods through the steps without pulling out the plants or causing soil erosion ● Allows the land to be cultivated that would otherwise be non-arable Irrigation Used to supplement rainfall by bringing water from its natural sources to farm fields through systems of canals, ditches, and other methods O Reservoirs and aquifers Impacts the cultural landscape and results in depletion of water resources Pastoral Nomadism ● Practiced in semi arid and arid climates, subsistence farming, Herders move animals seasonally to graze Results in soil erosion and desertification O Process by which fertile lands become infertile O Typically as a result of droughts and overgrazing ● Draining Wetlands Wetland: Area of land that is covered by water; swamps, marshes and bogs Drained and converted to arable farmland ● ● O In the netherlands 17% of the country's total land area was reclaimed for farming and habitation Results in loss of biodiversity and other environmental issues O Loss of habitat for fish, waterfowl, and mammals O Increases storm and flood damage Humans modify the physical environment to suit their needs and this shapes the cultural landscape. Pollution ● Increase in demand for meat → increased animal waste → can contain bacteria and nitrates which can contaminate water sources, soil, and cause illness Pesticide and herbicide → Chemicals into the air soil and water → Runoff contaminates water sources and damages wildlife habitats Use of fossil fuels increase greenhouse gasses that contribute to climate change Soil Salinization The process by which salts build up in the sil when water evaporates from the ground more rapidly than it is replenished Salt interferes with the ability of plants to absorb water and strips nutrients from the soil • Rapidly increasing as more land comes under irrigation and wetlands are drained Example: The Aral Sea in Central Asia O Rivers were diverted in the 1960s to irrigate the desert regions for cotton production O Water levels declined, soil became salinized (salty) and fish died O Changed the cultural and physical landscape and impacted the fishing economy and industry Deforestation Tropical rainforests → Amazon, and rainforests in Indonesia and Malaysia ● Rising demand has led to the conversion of the forests: O Logging industry O Slash and Burn Subsistence farming O Cattle Grazing O Commercial Agriculture - Palm Oil Results in increased greenhouse gas emissions, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity Increases to agriculture production have significantly impacted the environment. ●