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the information of those conversations before deeming it insignificant Supports late screening, as you need to process the meaning of your name to identify your name Divided Attention • People have difficulty focusing on two or more inputs simultaneously Dividing attention significantly reduces memory performance 1. Structural Encoding is relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus a. Ex) recognizing how many vowels are in a word 2. Phonemic Encoding involves naming or saying the word (emphasizing what a word sounds like) 3. Semantic Encoding emphasizes deep processing, by processing the meaning of something (involves thinking about what the word actually represents) ● Studies show that structural encoding is the weakest, semantic encoding is the strongest, and phonemic encoding falls in the middle Ways to Deeply Encoding Information 1. Elaboration ● Elaboration is linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding O This greatly enhances semantic encoding 2. Dual-Coding ● If information can be encoded in two ways (mostly semantically and visually) it will be better remembered ● Imagery is the creation of visual images to represent words O Using imagery greatly improves memory 3. Self-Referent Encoding ● Self-Referent Encoding involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant O Leads to improved recall of information O A person's recall of information tends to be slanted in favor of material that is relevant to them Storage Storage ● Storage involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time The most popular theory on storage is the Stage-Model Theory The theory proposes that there are three Sensory input Sensory memory Information not transferred is lost Rehearsal Sensory Memory ● This stage is the first stage in the Stage Model Theory Short-term I memory (STM) Information not transferred is lost Long-term memory (LTM) stages (sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory) involved with storage of memory ● Sensory memory preserves memory in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second Short-Term Memory ● Short-Term Memory is a limited-capacity store O Generally last between 10-30 seconds without active rehearsal ● Short-Term Memory has a capacity between 5-9 items, with an average capacity of 7 items Miller (1956) The first to publish a paper claiming a stated item capacity of STM Miller identified a pattern in his own research, and in the research of others, that the number 7 (plus or minus 2) frequently was reported as finding in short-term tasks How do we test short-term memory? Memory Span is the number of correct items that people can immediately recall from a sequence of items ● ● Chunking ● ● We tend to think of items as individual units of input or items Chunks consists of individual items that have been learned and stored as a group when integrating into LTM Rehearsal Rehearsal is the process of verbalizing or thinking about the information O Rehearsal of information tends to increase short-term memory Short-Term Memory vs. Working Memory ● Working Memory is a more complex and theoretical version of short-term memory O Phonological Loop is responsible for maintaining and manipulating speech-based information O Visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for maintaining and manipulating visual or spatial information O Central Executive is responsible for selecting strategies and integrating information o Episodic Buffer serves a limited capacity store that can integrate information from both the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop Working memory and short-term memory are often used interchangeably Long-Term Memory Long-Term Memory ● Long-term memory is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time O Some believe that long-term memory is permanent, and that the phenomenon of forgetting something is really n inability to retrieve the memory from storage Organization of Long-Term Memory Long-term memory is thought to be represented and organized in a variety of different ways O Schema ■ O A schema is an organized clustr of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object and/or event Ex) people are more likely to remember things that are consistent and extremely violate their schema-based expectations ● O Conceptual hierarchies I A conceptual hierarchy is a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items Semantic network ■ Semantic networks consist of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts Types of Long-Term Memory ● Declarative vs. Procedural ● O The declarative memory system handles factual information ■ Ex) names, definitions, locations, events, and etc. O The procedural memory system houses memory for actions, conditioned responses, and emotional responses Semantic vs. Episodic O Declarative memory can be broken down into episodic and semantic memory O Episodic memory is made up of chronological recollections of personal experiences Memories includes when you did something, saw something, or heard something O Semantic memory contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned Ex) remembering a cat has four legs or that Boston is the capital of Massachusetts ● Prospective vs. Retrospective O Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future O Retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information Retrieval/Forgetting Retrieval ● Retrieval is the final component of Stage Model Theory O It involves recovering information from memory storage Storing information alone does not guarantee that you will be able to retrieve it when you need to O Without being able to retrieve information from your memory storage, encoding the information and storing it would be completely pointless Measures of Retrieval/Forgetting ● Anytime retrieval is measured, it is inevitable that the researcher will also measure Recall is a measurement of retention that requires participants to reproduce information on their own without any cues Recognition is a measurement of rentention that requires participants to select previously learned information from an array of options Forgetting ● Forgetting is when we are unable to recall or retrieve a memory O Research shows forgetting can be caused by defects in encoding, storage, retrieval, or a combination of the three Forgetting is an adaptive quality O This allows a person to declutter their mind of things that are no longer important Results in less competition between competing memories Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve ● Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first person to conduct scientific studies of the process of forgetting (1885) ● Ebbinghaus's Results He tested his own memory using "nonsense syllables" (which are consonant-vowel-consonant arrangments that do no correspond with words) O He chose non-sense syllables for his experiment because they are untainted by previous experiences ● The Forgetting Curve graphs retention and forgetting over time There is a large drop in retention during the irst few hours ● O This indicates that we forget quickly Future research indicates this curve is slightly steeper in his study than it is with the average person Why do we forget? ● O Decay O Memory Retention (%) O 100- 80- 60- O 20 Immediate recall ● Ineffective Encoding O Ineffective encoding refers to information that was never encoded into memory storage ■ 20 minutes 1 hour 9 hours 246810 15 20 25 Elapsed time (days) Refer to information that was not stored properly in memory storage ■ Also referred to as Pseudo-forgetting ● Because you can't forget something you never learned The most common cause of ineffective encoding is a lack of attention Decay propose that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time ■ Research has shown that decay does occur when it comes to Sensory Memory Storage and is involved with Short-Term Memory Storage but it not reliably been shown to occur to Long-Term Memorry Forgetting does not depend solely on the passage of time but also the amount, complexity, and type of information Predicitions of Interference Theory O If memory is disrupted by interference, then recall should be determined by the number of interfering items We can eliminate or reduce factors that may potentially result in interference ■ Types of Interference ● Retroactive Interference - forgetting that occurs because of interference from material encountered after learning O Occurs after an event 31 ● Proactive interference - forgetting that occurs because of interference from material encountered before learning Occurs before an event O ● Retrieval Failure O Encoding Specificity Principle states the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code Transfer-Appropriate Processing occurs when initial processing of information is similar to type of processing required for the memory ● Repression O Repression refers to keeping distressing thoughts, feelings, and memory buried in the unconscious This is an important function of memory because Freud asserted that people often keep embarrassing, unpleasant, or painful memories buried in their unconscious