Alternative transcript:

Wearing case study - suffered damage memory but could perceive world around him and could still play piano - evidence to suggest that STM and LTM are separate o can't store new memories which supports the sequential process of the multi store model of memory Patient KF case study was in a motorbike incident and could retrieve from LTM but had problems with STM o could remember visual images but not acoustic information o shows that information is stored acoustically in STM because this is what he had problems with o suggests that there is another element to STM because he could remember visual information o suggests that the multistore model of memory is oversimplified Types of long term memory procedural memory - responsible for knowing how to do things o non declarative o brain region - cerebellum, motor cortex o like motor skills o e.g. knowledge of how to walk • semantic memory - part of long term memory responsible for storing information about the world o declarative o brain region - temporal lobe, pre-frontal cortex o involves knowledge about the meaning of words as well as general knowledge Memory revision notes 3 ● ● episodic memory - responsible for storing information about events that we have experienced in our lives o declarative o brain region - hippocampus, left prefrontal cortex o e.g. a memory of our first day at school Patients with amnesia give evidence to suggest that procedural memory is separate to semantic and episodic memory because procedural memory is largely unaffected • HM - supporting evidence - hippocampus was removed and episodic memory was affected o he was able to get better at drawing a star showing that procedural memory still worked • Buckner and Peterson - found semantic memory retrieval from the left side and episodic from the right o supports the idea of different types of LTM o disagrees with the brain regions proposed by Tulving • Patient PM - lost memory from a virus o couldn't remember past or plan future o recognised care worker and could learn new musical pieces o suggests that musical memory is stored independently of other memory types Working memory model • proposed by Baddeley and Hitch Memory revision notes 4 ● ● Phonological loop articulatory control system Phonological store Central executive episodic buffer Long term memory Visuo-spatial sketchpad Memory revision notes inner scribe visual cache store central executive controls attention and directs information to the two slave systems o very limited capacity Phonological loop deals with auditory information o articulatory control system - allows for sub-vocal repetition of items in the phonological store o phonological store - stores acoustic items for a short period of time visuo-spatial sketchpad - deals with visual and spatial tasks like planning a journey to somewhere in your head o inner scribe - deals with the spatial relationship between two objects o visual cache - stores visual information 5 ● ● episodic buffer - binds and integrates information from all of the other components and sends the information to LTM supporting evidence o Dual task studies conducted by Baddeley and Hitch and found that participants would do better on tasks that use different components of the working memory model o working memory model explains short term memory in terms of both temporary storage and active processing o PET scans have shown that different areas of the brain are active while completing verbal and visual tasks o Patient KF- could remember visual info but not verbal info which supports the different stores in short term memory • Contradictory evidence o only concerned with STM and doesn't explain how memory transfers to LTM o little research on the central executive - can't be used to explain experimental results Eyewitness testimony • eyewitness testimony is the evidence given in a court room or police investigation by someone who has witnessed a crime or an accident • weapon focus effect - a witness focuses on the weapon being used in the crime which causes a state of anxiety which leads to difficulty in recalling other information accurately • Johnson and Scott - researching the weapon focus effect Memory revision notes 6 o group 1 overheard a heated argument in the next room, a crash of equipment and then a man emerged holding a knife o group 2 heard the same but the man left holding a pen o each participant was asked to identify the man from 50 photos o group 1 were less accurate in selecting the man from the photos - supports the weapon focus effect Pickel - exploring the weapon focus effect o concluded that the weapon focus effect happens because the weapon is unusual and unexpected • Yuille and Cutshall - exploring weapon focus effect o 21 witnesses witnessed a shooting incident - 13 of the witnesses agreed to an interview 4-5 months after the event o the witnesses were highly accurate in their account and there was little change in amount or accuracy of recall after 5 months o stress levels had no effect on memory o provides evidence to contradict weapon focus effect • Riniolo et al - exploring weapon focus effect o got eyewitness testimony from survivors of the titanic and found that the majority of eyewitnesses accurately recall central details Misleading information - investigated by Loftus and Palmer as a factor to affect eye witness testimony o in the first experiment all participants watched a video of a car crash and were asked a specific (leading) question about the speed of the cars verb Smashed collided bumped hit contacted Memory revision notes mean speed estimate (mph) 40.5 39.3 38.1 34.0 31.8 7 o the results showed that the more aggressive the verb used in the leading questions, the higher the speed estimate which shows that leading questions have had an impact on eyewitness testimony o In a second experiment, participants were asked if they saw any glass in the accident saw glass? didn't see glass smashed 16 34 hit 7 43 ■ control (no speed) o these results show that those who were given leading questions were more likely to recall false information 6 34 • Gabbert - investigating information from post event discussion o memory contamination - post event discussion causes information from other witnesses or sources to combine with their own memories o memory conformity - witnesses go along with others for social approval and to try and be right Memory revision notes o conducted an investigation that consisted of 60 young and 60 old people from Aberdeen participants watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet ▪ only one person actually saw the girl steal the money as they had a different video ▪ 71% of participants recalled information they had not seen ▪ 60% said that the girl was guilty even though they did not see her take the money • cognitive interview - a memory enhancing technique used to help interviewees remember as much information as possible about an event o proposed by Fisher and Geiselman 1. Reinstate the context - mentally recreating the physical and psychological environment of the incident - bring back contextual and emotional cues 8 2. change the order - recall the events in a different order to the one they happened in - prevents pre-existing schemas from influencing what you recall ● 3. change perspective - asked to recall events from the perspective of another person - prevents pre-existing schemas from influencing what you recall 4. report everything - report every detail of the event to build a bigger picture • strengths o Milne and Bull found that report everything and reinstate the context produce the best results which shows that if there is no time for a full cognitive interview these two elements can be used o Kohnken - cognitive interview was more effective than the standard interview as 81% more correct information was recalled • weaknesses - Forgetting • retrieval failure due to an absence of cues - where the information is available but can't be accessed due to insufficient cues o time consuming to carry out o Kohnken -61% more incorrect information was recalled in cognitive interviews - time consuming to sort through the correct and incorrect information encoding specificity principle - memory is most effective if the information that was present at learning is also present at retrieval o the cues a person is exposed to, the more likely they are to remember the information context-dependent forgetting - what the environment was like when learning acts as a retrieval cue Memory revision notes o forgetting occurs when the recall environment is very different to the environment in which the information was learnt 9 • state-dependent forgetting - forgetting which occurs because the emotional or physical state at recall is different to that of learning ● Godden and Baddeley - investigated the effect of contextual cues on recall o 18 participants and 4 conditions - learning and recalling on land, learning and recalling under water, learning under water and recalling on land and learning on land and recalling underwater o words learned on land were better recalled on land and vice versa o evaluation: support effects of cues on retrieval, a replica of the study using recognition instead of recall failed to replicate the results • Goodwin - investigated state dependent forgetting o used 48 male medical students o had to learn words whilst drunk or sober and then recall the words a day later whilst drunk or sober o recall was the best when the person was in the same state as the one they learnt the information in • Interference - suggests that the information is stored but can be forgotten due to confusion, disruption or distortion from other memories o it is more likely to happen when the two pieces of information are similar as there is a greater response competition o response competition - a cue could be connected to multiple memories and a person could recall information from the wrong memory which inhibits recall of the target memory o Proactive interference - past learning interfering with new learning o retroactive interference - recent learning interfering with old learning o McGeoch and Mcdonald - supporting evidence for retroactive interference Memory revision notes 10 ■ participants recalled more words from an original list of words when they had also learned a list of digits compared to when they learnt another list of synonyms ■ supports the idea of response competition as they recalled the synonym not the original list o Underwood - supporting evidence for proactive interference ▪ some participants were asked to remember one or two lists of words but others had to remember 10 or more list of words ▪ the next day the participants had to recall as many words from the lists ▪ participants remembered more words from the earlier lists ▪ shows that old learning can interfere with new learning o Baddeley and Hitch - evidence for the effects of interference in real life rugby players who had played most games forgot more team mates names than those who played less games showed that the more information a person encounters, the more likely they are to forget the information due to interference o Tulving and Psotka - evidence to suggest interference effects could be overcome using cues ▪ gave participants five lists of 24 words and each list was organised into 6 categories ▪ recall was around 70% but dropped when participants had to remember another word list ■ when participants were told the category of the first word list accuracy rose to 70% again Memory revision notes 11