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to be a neutral, meaningless bell-neutral stimulus (NS)-that now triggers salivation Before conditioning O During conditioning US (food in mouth) → UR (salivation) ■ NS (bell) → No salivation ■ NS (bell) + US (food) → UR (salivation) After conditioning ■ CS (bell) → CR (salivation) Acquisition ■ initial learning/ stage; the process of developing a learned response ii. ● iii. iv. ■ The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS). Conditioning helps an animal survive and reproduce-by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring. ● US (kiss) → UR (arousal) ● ■ Learning makes for yearning. I Through high-order conditioning (a.k.a. second-order conditioning), a new NS can become a CS without the presence of a US. ● All that's required is for it to become associated with a previously conditioned stimulus. Ex. If a bell regularly signals food and produces salivation, then a light that becomes associated with the tone (light → tone → food) may also begin to trigger salivation O First-order conditioning: CS (onion breath) + US (kiss) →→ UR (arousal) CS (onion breath)→ CR (arousal) ■ b. Pavlov's Legacy i. O Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: the diminishing of a learned (conditioned) response after repeated presentation of the CS alone ● Ex. After the bell (CS) kept ringing with no food (US) given, the dog salivated less and less. Spontaneous recovery: sometimes, after the extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented. ● Ex. The bell (CS) rang out of nowhere, and the dog suddenly salivated (CR). ● Bell + food salivation Bell salivation ■ Higher-order conditioning (After first-order conditioning has occurred): ■ Light + bell = salivation ■ Light = salivation Generalization ■ producing the same response to two similar stimuli Discrimination The subject learns that one stimulus predicts the US and the other does not. ● Application of Classical Conditioning I Pavlov's principle can influence human health and well-being: Drug cravings Food cravings ● Immune response Pavlov's work also provided a basis for John B. Watson's (1913) idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses-Little Albert experiment. Module 27 Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior. The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing (rewarding) to the subject. The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing (punishing) to the subject. The learner is NOT passive. ● Learning based on consequence!! 1. Skinner's Experiments O B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), founder of operant conditioning. Used a Skinner Box-operant (conditioning) chamber O Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) Law of effect: ■ O O ● idea behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely the idea that forms the basis of operant conditioning a. Shaping Behavior O an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward close and closer approximations of the desired behavior. b. Types of Reinforcement O ● Locked cats in a cage O Reinforcement encourages the behavior. O Positive (+) reinforcement ● created puzzle boxes for research on cats called the whole process instrumental learning O Add a desirable stimulus Ex. Pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay someone for work done Negative (-) reinforcement ■ ■ Primary reinforcer Remove an aversive stimulus Ex. Take painkillers to end pain; fasten seat belt to end loud beeping ■ a naturally reinforcing stimulus I Ex. Food (if you are hungry), warmth (if you are cold), water (if you are thirsty). ■ The item is reinforcing in and of itself. Secondary reinforcer (a.k.a. conditioned reinforcer) ■ Something that you have learned to value ■ Ex. money O Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement ■ Ability to delay satisfaction predicts higher achievement c. Reinforcement schedules O a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. O Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. O Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing a response only part of the time. ■ O Fixed-ratio schedule ■ Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior ■ Ex. Buy 10 coffees, get one free; pay workers per product unit produced. Variable-ratio After an unpredictable number. reinforcement after a random number of behaviors Ex. When playing a slot machine; fly fishing O Fixed-interval Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time ■ Tuesday discount prices O Variable-interval d. Punishment ● ● ■ O Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time Ex. When studying for an unpredictable pop quiz O Punishment discourages the behavior. O Positive (+) punishment ■ ■ Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding. Negative (-) reinforcement ■ Withdrawing a rewarding stimulus Take away a misbehaving teen's driving privileges; revoke a rude person's chat room access 2. Skinner's Legacy ● Skinner repeatedly insisted that external influences, not internal thoughts and feelings, shape behavior. Gives an aversive stimulus ● Critics of Skinner's idea believed that the approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people's actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more humane than punishment as a means for controlling behavior. Module 28 Operant Conditioning's Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning 1. Applications of Operant Conditioning At school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use interactive media to provide immediate feedback. In sports, where the accidental timing of rewards can produce superstitious behavior, coaches can nevertheless build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. For self-improvement, we can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, and reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual. ● To manage stress, we can learn from our bodily responses to manage stress; biofeedback is one studied method. 2. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning ● Classical conditioning is involuntary (respondent) behavior, while operant conditioning is voluntary (operant) behavior. ● Through classical (Pavlovian) conditioning, we associate different stimuli we do not control, and we respond automatically (respondent behaviors). Through operant conditioning, we associate our own behaviors-which act on our environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli (operant behavior) with their consequences. Module 29 Biology, Cognition, and Learning 1. Biological Const aints on Conditioning a. Biological limits on Classical Conditioning O Learning is adaptive: Each species learns behavior that aid its survival-preparedness O Environments are not the whole story. Biology matters. ■ Learning ● Biological influences: ● O John Garcia O genetic predispositions unconditioned responses adaptive responses neural mirroring Psychological influences: O O O O previous experiences O predictability of associations O generalization O discrimination O expectations Social-cultural influences: O culturally learned preferences O motivation, affected by presence of others O modeling Studied rats and how they make associations Some associations seem to be adaptive. Rat Experiment Garcia effect O CS Loud Noise Loud Noise ● Taste aversions Sweet Water Sweet Water O 2. Cognition's Influence on Conditioning US Shock Radiation (nausea) a. Cognition and Classical Conditioning O Robert Rescorla Shock Radiation (nausea) O Subjects come classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes, because the tastes are associated with nausea. When it comes to food being paired with sickness, the conditioning is incredibly strong. Even when food and sickness are hours apart. Learned Response Fear Nothing Nothing Food must be noticeable. b. Biological limits on Operant Conditioning O Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. O Instinctive drift Avoid Water ■ b. Cognition and Operant Conditioning O O ii. Developed, along with Allan Wagner (1972), a theory that emphasized the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning. ● They showed that an animal can learn the predictability of an event. O The more predictable the association, the stronger the CR. Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the CS was a reliable predictor of the US. Edward Chase Tolman (1886-1959) ■ Cognitive behaviorism ■ known for his research on cognitive maps, the theory of latent learning and the concept of an intervening variable Cognitive learning and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive process in learning 3. Learning and Personal Control a. Perceived Loss of Control i. Internal versus external locus of control ■ We may feel helpless, hopeless, and depressed when experiencing bad events beyond our personal control. Being unable to avoid repeated aversive events can lead to learned helplessness. People who perceive an internal locus of control achieve more, enjoy better health, and are happier than those who perceive an external locus of control. A perceived lack of control provokes an outpouring of hormones that put people's health at risk. Building Self-Control ■ Self-control requires attention and energy, but it predicts good health, higher income, and better school performance. ● Studies have shown self-control to be a better predictor of future academic and life success than intelligence test score. Self-control varies over time, and while researchers disagree about the factors influencing it, strengthening self-control can lead to a healthier, happier, and more successful life. Module 30 Observational Learning 1. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain ● Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain. The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words), as when we observe someone else performing those actions. Some psychologists believe mirror neurons enable this process. (Others argue it may be more due to the brain's distributed brain networks.) 2. Applications of Observational Learning a. Prosocial Effects O Children tend to imitate what a model does and says whether the behavior being modeled is prosocial (positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. O If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe. b. Antisocial Effects O Abusi parents → aggressive