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in the America's. Protestant Reformation, religious movement of the 16th century by John Calvin that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches, created a new part of Christianity and brought Protestants to America. Maritime technology, with increased overseas travelling brought advancements to sailing, improved ships, sails, and brought about items like the compass. Columbian Exchange, The transmission and interchange of plants, animals, diseases, cultures, human populations (including slaves), and technologies between the New World and the Old World, Greatly benefited Europe and Asia while simultaneously bringing catastrophe to American Indian populations and cultures. Diseases: smallpox, measles, brought over by Europeans to Native American populations, devastated Native populations and was the leading cause of their demise. Joint-stock companies, company made up of a group of shareholders, funded voyages and settlements in the "New World." Feudalism, A social system that existed in Europe during the Middle Ages in which people worked and fought for nobles who gave them protection and the use of land in return, became a dividing force as nobility power increased and surf power did not. Capitalism, A system of economic production based on the private ownership of property and the contractual exchange for profit of goods, labor, and money, started to develop in the 17th century. Caste system, class structure that is determined by birth, was used in Spanish colonies. Encomienda system, labor system that forced Natives to labor for Spanish conquerors, was extremely harsh on the Native population and lead to their demise. Slavery, A system of bondage in which a slave has the legal status of property and so can be bought and sold like property, forced on to Africans and became major labor source in colonial society until the Revolutionary war. Bartolomé de Las Casas, A Spanish missionary who was disgusted and outraged by the poor treatment of Native Americans especially the encomienda system, Advocated for the rights of Native Americans to King Charles of Spain. Juan Gines de Sepulveda, defended the Spanish "right" to conquer Native Americans, thought that the Native Americans were barbaric and savage. Key Unit 2 Jamestown, first permanent English settlement in North America, used a Joint-Stock Company and farmed cash crops such as such as tobacco, 1607. London (Virginia) Company, Joint-Stock Company, chartered by King James I to establish a colony in North America, 1606. Chesapeake, east coast area connecting modern day Maryland, DC, and Virginia, farmed tobacco, self-sufficient agriculture community House of Burgesses*, an assembly of elected representatives, from Virginia that met from 1643 to 1776, Catholics in Maryland, Lord Baltimore established a proprietor colony for Catholics, relied on the farming of tobacco Act of Toleration 1649*, religious freedom only for Catholics, hoped to encourage more Europeans to come to the colonies. Puritans*, Protestants who saw the Protestant Reformation as incomplete and wanted to make worship simpler,_created new forms of worship, established themselves in most of the colonies. Plymouth Plantation, settlement for Pilgrims in Massachusetts, colony established by separatists. saints and strangers, Puritan separatists and people who were not full members of the Church, primary settlers in English colonies. Mayflower Compact*, self-governance document, The first document to establish self-governance in the colonies. Tobacco, a plant used for smoking, became a cash crop that was imported to Europe. Middle colonies, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, important distribution centers in the English mercantile system Town meetings, gathering of community members to discuss issues, started colonies break away from monarchy. Massachusetts Bay Colony, English settlement, ruled by colonists John Winthrop, Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, a Puritan who wanted communities ruled by religion. "City on a Hill"*, a shining example of what a community should look like, used to persuade other colonies to seek religious government. Roger Williams*, Founder of Rhode Island, introduced the idea of separation of church and state and was for religious tolerance. Anne Hutchinson*, Puritan leader, challenged patriarchal society. Restoration Colonies*, a colony made by a land grant, created the Carolinas, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. English Civil War, Parliamentarians fighting Royalists, sparked change in English government and religious freedom. Proprietary colonies, controlled by the monarchy through an appointed land grantee called the lord proprietorship, established Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Royal colonies, an appointed governor who tried to gain more control of the colonies, established New York, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia and Georgia. Charter colonies, corporate charter with no interference from the monarchy, established Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Quakers (Society of Friends)*, a form of Protestant Christianity that relies on someone's individual connection with God and not through scripture, were a large part of settlers in the colonies and changed religious practices. Atlantic economy*, economic system, exchange of sugar and slaves through the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Mercantilism*, countries wealth is measured by the amount of gold it has, benefit Britain by exporting more than the colonies imported. Navigation Acts*, restricting trade to only England from the colonies, used to monopolize resources and grow English economy Dominion of New England, plan to tighten British government in colonies, merged the colonies of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island Glorious Revolution, overthrowing King James II, brought monarchy under Protestant rulers Mary and William Atlantic slave trade, buying and selling of slaves that went to the America's, slaves farmed cash crops and were a vital part of the economy. Chattel slavery, based on race and was hereditary, used in the America's by European colonies. Triangular trade*, trade route connecting the Americas, Africa, and Europe to one another, spread different resources and displayed the Columbian Exchange. Middle passage, route that slaves went on when being brought to the Americas, brought slaves to the Americas which were vital in the cultivation of cash crops. Stono Rebellion*, slave uprising, caused the enaction of harsher slave codes. Pueblo Revolt*, capturing of Sante Fe and liberating of pueblos with 6 different languages, New Mexico was under Pueblo rule. Indentured servants*, working because of a contract with a set time, was the first round of laborers in the colonies. Pequot War, war between Pequot tribe and New England colonies, made the English have more military power than the Dutch. Metacom's (King Philip's) War*, Wampanoags had limited land and were killing pigs that were the 'property' of the English causing an outbreak of war, lost 25% of Native American population and forced them to move west. Bacon's Rebellion*, first armed uprising by colonists against English government, increased the amount of slaves in Virginia. Salem Witchcraft Trials*, people would claim they were being possessed by a demon and blame it on someone they thought was a satanist causing them to be killed, changed how people are represented in court proceedings. Great Awakening*, increase in Protestant Revivalism with a stronger emotional connection to beliefs, altered religious climate in the Americas. revivalism*, a comeback or strong change in religious belief and feeling, The Great Awakening. George Whitefield, passionate preacher, led the Great Awakening movement. Jonathan Edwards*, philosophical theologian, encouraged people to see the Christian God as the supreme ruler of the world. New Lights vs. Old Lights, embracing the Great Awakening vs. against the emotionalism and the Great Awakening, divided peoples religious beliefs. Enlightenment*, period of new ideas and intellectual reasoning, inspired political and social change first in France and than all around the world. Benjamin Franklin, inventor and printer, printed works from the Great Awakening and Enlightenment. Cotton Mather, Puritan theologian, believed that immunizing people would prevent illnesses such as smallpox. Trial of John Peter Zenger*, defamation case against John Peter Zenger, established that truthful statements about a politician were not defamation. Anglicization, the act of making someone English through character or form, even though the colonies were supposed to be very different from Britain they were extremely similar to it. Key Unit 3 Adam Smith, father of economics, formed the basis for theories of classical economics. Articles of Confederation, first constitution, weak central government, each state had one vote for national government, for amendments to occur votes had to be unanimous, federal government could only make treaties and tax. Baron Von Steuben, helped train American soldiers, helped them win the Revolution. Battle of Saratoga, turning point of revolution, Patriots won with the financial and military aid of the French. Battle of Yorktown, patriots and French surrounded British troops forcing them to surrender, granted American independence from Britain. Boston Massacre, a fight between colonists and British troops, first time political propaganda is seen. Boston Tea Party, dumping of tea into Boston Harbor in reaction to Coercive Acts passed by British government, was one of the first revolutionary acts and forced the British to have military control over Boston. Chief Little Turtle & Western Confederacy, signing of the Greenville treaty, gave all the Ohio Valley land to America. Committee of Correspondence, American colonial committee to increase communication with one another, formed in response to British Acts. Coercive/Intolerable Acts, forced Massachusetts to pay for damaged tea and submit to imperial authority, Sparked more colonial outrage towards British and loyalists. Daughters of Liberty, female association protesting the stamp and townshend acts, established women as wanting more independence. Declaratory Act, Parliament stating that the British were being taxed the same way as the colonists, British needed any money they could get to pay off war debts. Declaration of Independence, list of grievances from American colonists, Final choice to separate from Britain. French Revolution, was considered an extension to the American Revolution, divided America on if France should be supported by them or not. Northwest Ordinance, method of creating new states in territory, grew the United States. Olive Branch Petition, petition to British king, first attempt Americans made to resolve tensions between them and the British, Patrick Henry, helped create the constitution and lead the revolution, founding father. Pontiac's Rebellion, uprising of Ohio Valley tribes against encroaching colonists, showed Native Americans disdain for colonists. Proclamation of 1763, British gaining the French territories east of the Mississippi after French & Indian War, expanded British control in America. George Mason/Declaration of Rights, wrote to establish independence from Britain, founding father and helped with declaration of independence. Iroquois Confederation, fought with the British against French in promise for land, helped the British win the war, but did not get the land promised to them. Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer, laid out a case against the acts issued by the British, gave perspective of farmers. Lexington and Concord, Americans push British back to Boston, Americans won. Land Ordinance of 1785, 1787, how land west of the Appalachia was sold and created northwest territory, grew the US. Loyalists/Tories, Neutrals, Patriots, different groups in the colonies during the american revolution, divided American beliefs of independence. Mercy Otis Warren, female poet and writer, encouraged women to fight and supported Boston Tea party. 1st/2nd Continental Congress, met after the establishment of the Intolerable acts then met after start of Revolutionary War, started establishing America as a united country. Quartering Act, required colonists to house and feed British soldiers, colonists were prone to abuse from soldiers. Republican Motherhood, an educated women, grew access to education. Samuel Adams, revolutionary leader, harnessed resentment towards parliament. Sons of Liberty, loosely organized, violent group of protesters in colonies, caused military power. British to push back with more Thomas Paine/Common Sense, second petition to British king, argued to establish independence from Britain and establish America as a democratic republic. Tea Act, tax on tea, upset colonists, because they were being blindly taxed without representation and making it hard for trade to occur. Townshend Acts, tax on American imports, made it harder for colonists to trade. Stamp Act, tax on stamps and any kind of print like newspapers, made communication harder. Stamp Act Congress, nine colonial leaders petitioning taxes from British, formed out of common grievances over the King. Sugar Act of 1754, replaced molasses act, infuriated colonists. Treaty of Alliance 1778, military treaty between France and America, established that France would support America financially and with military throughout the Revolution Treaty of Paris 1783, treaty between America and Britain, officially ended revolutionary war. Virtual/Actual Representation, represent entire empire or country/ represent individuals and their beliefs, Americans were fighting for actual representation because they were only getting virtual representation. Critical Period, years between end of Revolution and the ratification of the Constitution, America was very weak because they had not established themselves completely so it was important that they did not get involved in global conflict. Bill of Rights, safeguarded against government power, protection of personal powers, what the Anti-Federalists needed in order to completely approve the Constitution. Commerce Compromise, allow tariffs only on foreign countries and not US exports, decreased taxes and allowed people to survive economically. Connecticut (Great) Compromise, had one legislative house based on population and the other had 2 representatives per state, made the voting “equal" for states James Madison, writer of the federalist papers, founding father that helped grow America. Newburgh Conspiracy, a plan by Continental Army officers to challenge the authority of the Confederation Congress, pushed America to figure out financial plan. Shay's Rebellion, MA increased taxes that caused farms to shut down, caused a rebellion led by Shay, demonstrated the weakness of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a new government. 3/5 Compromise, slaves were 60% of a white person in population, helped southern states that were made up of primarily slaves. Thomas Jefferson/Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom, freedom of conscious and the separation of church and state, allowed people to practice religion freely. Virginia/New Jersey Plans, VA wanted bicameral legislative based on population, NJ wanted representation to be equal for all states, led to the bicameral legislative branch. Article 1, Section 8 of U.S. Constitution, allows laws to be made, allowed America to keep establishing a structure. Alien and Sedition Acts, made it so that Presidents could deport foreigners and governments could not be criticized for their actions, considered unconstitutional. Bank of the United States, provides loans to businesses and helps economy, first national bank. Citizen Genet, French minister to US, tried to got US involved in war between the French and British. Election of 1800/Revolution of 1800, election of Thomas Jefferson as president, was a peaceful transition of power. Federalist Party, wanted the federal government to have more power than the state governments, most notably Washington and Adams Full-funding/Assumption, buying back all loans plus interest, speculators bought bonds at cheap prices, assumed all state debts, favored national debt, In the end it increased America's debt exponentially. Hamilton Financial Plan, public credit, created national bank, and raised taxes, considered a controversial financial plan. Democrat-Republican Party, wanted states to have more power than the federal government, Jefferson and Jackson were most notable. Jay's Treaty, Washington sent Jay to Britain to have them sign a treaty to stop harassing American ships, Washington did this without the approval of the legislative branch and was considered controversial. Loose/Strict Constructionism, raising revenue through tariffs and excise taxes, angered a lot of Americans who did not want to be taxed because it reminded them of the British. Pinckney Treaty, negotiation over land dispute, resolved land disputes and granted US access to Mississippi River. Nullification/Compact Theory, the states formed the federal government so they should get a final say in what the government does, influenced VA & KY views on Alien and Sedition Acts. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, urged states to drop Alien and Sedition Acts, were considered unconstitutional and that the federal government was overstepping its power. Washington's Farewell Address, Washington's last guidance to America, showed how much the government should've changed but didn't. Washington's Neutrality Proclamation, declared that America would not get involved in conflict between Britain and France, upset some Americans like Thomas Jefferson who thought it was only right to help them since they helped America. Whiskey Rebellion, Pennsylvania farmers rebelled against excise tax on whiskey because it was hard on them financially, the federal government did not budge. Undeclared naval war/Quasi-War, war between the French and Americans, first seaborne conflict for newly established US. XYZ Affair, French diplomats demanded a bribe from 3 American ambassadors, war hysteria ensued. Key Unit 4 War Hawks, a group of southern & western Congressmen fighting for expansionism by kicking the Spanish & British out of North America, led to the war of 1812. Market Revolution, increase in mass factor production instead of small artisan production, transformed the US economy. War of 1812, US & Britain fighting over Britain's violation of US maritime rights and US expansion, led to the Treaty of Ghent which resulted in no one losing or gaining land. Tariffs, tax on imported foreign goods, increased the price of foreign goods to increase the likelihood of consumers buying domestic goods. Monroe Doctrine, The US declaring it will not tolerate anymore colonization and it will not be a part of any European conflicts, allowed the US to be involved in the global economy without the worry of war. Steam engines, power source that could be built anywhere for machines, helped increase transportation with steamboats and trains. Indian Removal Act, forced Native Americans to leave and go west of the Mississippi, increased conflict between Native Americans and the US. Black Hawk War, war in Illinois between and alliance of Sauk and Fox Indians under Black Hawk against white settlers in 1831-1832, due to a treaty from the US government that took tribal lands. Nativism, distrust of immigrants with stronger value on those that are 'native,' towards irish and catholic immigrants looking for work in the US. Interchangeable Parts, easy to assemble pieces of a product, Used to get more unskilled workers in factories during Industrial Revolution. Immigration, going to live in a foreign country permanently, German and Irish immigrants came to the US in search for work during the Industrial Revolution. Missouri Compromise, establishment of Northern states being non-slave states and Southern states being slave states, changed the economy for northern and southern states, and later led to the Civil War. Nationalism, extreme loyalty given to individual nations by their people, caused the north and south to push against each other more because they essentially were becoming two different nations. Sectionalism, only viewing the interests of a specific area instead of the whole area, divided the southern and northern states politically and economically. John Calhoun, nationalist and political theorist, favored protective tariffs, states' rights, limited government, nullification, and free trade, and was pro-slavery. Nullification Crisis, South Carolina declaring 1828 & 1833 tariffs unconstitutional, almost led to a Civil War. Implied Powers, government powers that are in the constitution but not written, stretch the existence of the Constitution. John Marshall, chief justice of the supreme court, increased federal government power and helped stimulate the growth of the economy. Tariff of Abominations, put an extremely high price on imports, encouraged growth of the national economy but aggravated the south dividing it from the north more. American System, Clay's strong banking system, a protective tariff, and a federally funded transportation network, protected the Western Hemisphere and improved communication through transportation. Romanticism, 1800's artistic movement that appealed to emotions over reason, influenced art and ideas of the time. Marbury vs. Madison, Madison refused to give Marbury the commission so Marbury went to the federal court and claimed it was unconstitutional, gave the federal court the power to review decisions made by the legislative and executive branch that could be considered unconstitutional. Andrew Jackson, 7th President, 1st of the democratic party, promoted limited federal government and opposed a national bank. McCulloch vs. Maryland, A second Bank of the US was established and the state of Maryland wanted to impose taxes on it, McCulloch refused to pay though, made it so that states could not tax federal property and defined that Congress does not possess powers explicitly said in the Constitution. Common man, everyday working man, promoted by Andrew Jackson because he came from humble beginnings. Gibbons vs. Ogden, both operated ferries between New York and New Jersey, but Gibbons was licensed by the federal government and Ogden was licensed by the state of New York, the federal court concluded that interstate commerce would be regulated by the federal government only. Spoils system, winning political party gives government post jobs to campaign workers and avid supporters, prompted civil service reforms that made it so that some posts could be appointed while others were given based on merit. Jacksonian Democracy, the start of the democratic party, oppressed slaves and Native Americans, while uplifting the white people of America. Hartford Convention, Federalists Party discussing grievances over 1812 war, precursor to the secession of the South and the Civil War. Whigs, American political party formed in opposition of democratic party, promoted protective tariffs and federal funding for the country. Henry Clay, Kentucky congressman that led the War Hawks, started the division of the North and South with pro-war south and not pro North. Nathaniel Turner's Rebellion, deadliest slave revolt of 1831, showed the south that slaves were willing to fight for their rights. David Walker, black abolitionist who called for the immediate emancipation of slaves, pushed for violent acts of protest to end slavery. William Lloyd Garrison,white civil rights activist, suffragist, and publisher, led moral crusade against slavery in America. Seneca Falls Convention, first women's rights convention, writing of the Declaration of Sentiments and pushed for women's right to vote. Lucretia Mott, women's rights activist and white abolitionist, spoke out against slavery and gender inequality. The Second Great Awakening, Protestant rival in the early 1800's, sparked reform movements. Temperance, limitation or the complete quitting of alcohol, part of the Second Great Awakening. Abolitionism, movement in opposition to slavery, brought about the end of slavery in America. Utopian Communities, small communities built on strong religious ideologies/morals, showed the reforms of the time by giving everyone equal treatment. Transcendentalism, A philosophy pioneered by Ralph Waldo Emerson in the 1830's and 1840's, in which each person has direct communication with God and Nature, and there is no need for organized churches, influenced American literature. Key Unit 5 Manifest Destiny, the US is destined by God to expand westward to grow its democracy and capital, made Americans believe it was their right to expand and push out Native Americans even more. Mexican-American War, war between US and Mexico over Texas, California, and Oregon territories, once the US won it sparked debate over what the land would be used for and if slavery would be a part of the new land. James K. Polk, was an avid Tennessee politician and the 11th President of the US, oversaw the westward expansion. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, established the US's ownership of everything west to the Pacific, ended the war between US and Mexico. Fifty-Four Forty or Fight, slogan Polk used to fight for Oregon, California, and Texas territories, led Polk to victory allowing for the complete expansion of the US. Mexican Cession, Mexico losing land to the US, US gained over 500,000 square miles. The Great American Desert, term for east of the Rocky Mountains to the 100 Meridian because of the dry land, was a difficult area of land to cross especially for those trying to settle on the west coast. Kanagawa Treaty, ended Japan's 200 year period of economic isolation, allowed Japan to establish a consulate in Japan and secured coaling rights for the US in Japan's ports. Wilmot Proviso, a provision attached to an appropriations bill during the Mexican War. It stated that slavery would be banned in any territory won from Mexico as a result of the war, important congressional proposal in the 1840s to prohibit the extension of slavery into the territories given by the Republican Party. California Gold Rush, thousands of miners traveling to California in search for gold, prompted people to start establishing themselves in California leading to California becoming a state. Compromise of 1850, five laws passed in September of 1850 that dealt with the issue of slavery and territorial expansion, was a temporary fix on the conflict surrounding the expansion of slavery into new territories. Fugitive Slave Law, part of the Compromise of 1850, it set high penalties for anyone who aided escaped slaves and compelled all law enforcement officers to participate in retrieving runaways, strengthened antislavery in the North and added tension between North and South. Free Soil Movement, A political party with the main purpose of stopping the expansion of slavery in western territories, arguing free men on free soil, minor but influential political party in the pre-Civil War period of American history that opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories. Popular sovereignty, allows the people of and anyone in that territory to vote on something, brought in a rush of people from other states to vote on whether Kansas should be a slave state and lead to "Bleeding Kansas." Kansas-Nebraska Act, repealed the Missouri Compromise, created two new territories, and allowed for popular sovereignty, produced "Bleeding Kansas” and sparked the debate on popular sovereignty when activists for and against slavery flooded the state to vote. Bleeding Kansas, the period of repeated outbreaks of violent guerrilla warfare between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces following the creation of the new territory of Kansas in 1854, precursor to the Civil War. Republican Party, Political party founded in northern states in 1854 by anti-slavery activists, modernizers and ex-Whigs, became the principal opposing party to the Democratic party. Dred Scott vs. Sanford, Dred Scott argued that because he lived in free states (Illinois and Louisiana territory) that once he went to a slave state (Missouri) he would still be free, Court ruled that African Americans no matter if free or enslaved had no rights in federal court. Harpers Ferry, Federal arsenal in Virginia seized by abolitionist John Brown in 1859, caused southerners to believe that all of the north was like Brown. Abraham Lincoln, 16th US President, ended slavery with the Emancipation Proclamation. Battle of Vicksburg, battle in July 1863 in Mississippi, Union gained control of Mississippi territory. Secession, a state attempting to or leaving a nation, precipitated the Civil War. Homestead Act, 1862 act giving 160 acres of western land to those that would occupy and improve it, caused rapid development in the west after the Civil War. Jefferson Davis, President of the Southern Confederate States from 1860 to 1865 after their succession from the Union, led the south during the Civil War. Railway Act, 1862 law passed by Congress to give loans and land to Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroad companies, first transcontinental railroad and connected the west to the east. "Contrabands”, escaped slaves that showed up in Union camps they would either be put to work or set free, Once the slaves crossed into Union lines they were considered property of the Union without return. Morrill Land Grant Act, 1862 land grant to set aside land for the building of colleges, made it possible for states to have public colleges with federal property. Battle of Gettysburg, Civil War battle in Pennsylvania, was a big win for the Union and the last time the Confederacy fought in the North. 13th Amendment, prohibits all forms of slavery and involuntary servitude, freed all slaves and abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States. 14th Amendment, granted African Americans citizenship and equal protection under the laws, nullified the % Compromise and gave African Americans "eqaulity." 15th Amendment, in 1870 it granted African American men the right to vote, allowed African American men to hold opinions in political settings. Radical Republicans, Congressional group that wished to punish the South for its secession from the Union, pushed for measures that gave economic and political rights to newly freed blacks in the South and that made it difficult for former Confederate states to rejoin the Union. Reconstruction, 1865-1877 Period after the Civil War during which Northern political leaders created plans for the governance of the South and a procedure for former Southern states to rejoin the Union, aimed at reuniting the country, but was also aimed to destroy any opposition to Union beliefs. Ten Percent Plan, proposed that a state be readmitted to the Union once 10 percent of its voters had pledged loyalty to the United States and promised to honor emancipation, brought states back into the union. Andrew Johnson, The 17th President of the US from 1865-1869, was president during the Reconstruction era and had policies that failed to promote the rights of freedmen. Hiram Revels, senator elected in 1870 to the Mississippi seat previously occupied by Jefferson Davis, first African-American senator. Blanche K. Bruce, U.S. politician who represented Mississippi as a Republican in the U.S. Senate from 1875 to 1881, the first elected African American senator to serve a full term. Freedmen's Bureau, created by Congress in 1865 to aid newly emancipated slaves by providing food, clothing, medical care, education, and legal support, helped newly emancipated slaves establish themselves in the new American society. Ku Klux Klan, white supremacist terrorist group that emerged during the Reconstruction, initiated white supremacy and instilled fear in black people. Slaughter-House Cases, a monopolization of the slaughter-house industry in New Orleans causing involuntary servitude, the court decided that this did not violate the 13th and 14th amendment which means that those amendments did not protect equal economic privileges given by states. U.S. v. Cruikshank, an 1875 Supreme Court case that arose from the Colfax Massacre in Louisiana and centered on the constitutionality of the Enforcement Act of 1870, led to an allowance of violence and deprivation of rights against the newly freed slaves. Compromise of 1877, an informal, unwritten deal that settled the disputed 1876 U.S. Presidential election, gave Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency in exchange for the end of Reconstruction in the South. "Redemption," Southern Democratic term for the end of Reconstruction and the return of white southern Democratic rule to the South, prompted heavy divide between Democratic South and Republican North. Key Unit 6 Dawes Severalty Act, passed in 1887 under President Grover Cleveland, allowed the federal government to break up tribal lands and give them to individual Native Americans in exchange for them adopting white culture, caused Native Americans to lose more tribal land. Haymarket Square, labor protest in Chicago that turned into a riot after a bomb was thrown at police, sparked national wave of xenophobia and was considered a setback for the fair labor movement. Battle of Little Bighorn, Native American victory over US Army in Long Plains Indian War, further portrayed Native Americans as wild individuals and angered white americans. Wounded Knee, in 1890, the slaughter of approximately 150-300 Lakota Indians by United States Army troops in the area of Wounded Knee Creek in southwestern South Dakota, marked end of Native resistance to encroachment and became a rallying cry for activists as they pointed out how centuries of land theft, broken treaties, and forced assimilation affected Native Americans. Vertical Integration, form of business organization in which all stages of production of a good, from the acquisition of raw materials to the retailing of the final product, are controlled by one company, helped industries grow and establish in many areas. Horizontal Integration, when a single company has absolute control of a specific facet of production, created monopolies in industries. "Frontier Thesis"/Turner, the argument advanced by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893 that a settler colonial exceptionalism, under the guise of American democracy, was formed by the appropriation of the rugged American frontier, encouraged more people to settle westward because it implied that westward expansion helped discard European culture. Knights of Labor, labor union that advocated for 8 hour work days and wanted laborers to own their industries, first major labor organization in the United States. Exodusters, large-scale black migration from the South to Kansas, established new societies for settling black communities. American Federation of Labor, wanted economic gains, such as higher wages, shorter hours, and better conditions, in addition to staying out of politics for laborers, was one of the most distinguished labor unions until the Great Depression. The Homestead Act, 1862 act giving 160 acres of western land to those that would occupy and improve it, caused rapid development in the west after the Civil War. Samuel Gompers, founder of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), was the nation's leading trade unionist and labor spokesman. Assimilation, white americans forcing Native Americans and immigrants to adopt their culture, attempted to destroy Native American culture. Great Railroad Strike of 1877, started on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in response to the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad cutting wages of workers for the third time in a year, first major rail strike and first general strike in the nation's history. Americanization, activities that were designed to prepare foreign-born residents of the United States for full participation in citizenship, to program immigrants to American values. Homestead Strike, violent labour dispute between the Carnegie Steel Company and many of its workers that occurred in 1892 in Homestead, Pennsylvania, eliminated steel union and showed strength for the organized labor union. "New" immigrants, immigrants coming from Southern and Eastern Europe, increased the labor force. Political machines, a party organization, headed by a single boss or small autocratic group, that commands enough votes to maintain political and administrative control of a city, county, or state, controlled access to political power by rigging votes and buying peoples loyalty. Chinese Exclusion Act, law banning Chinese laborers, first significant law restricting immigration into the United States. Tammany Hall, Boss Tweed, political machine that controlled policy in New York City, infected urban society with corruption. U.S. Steel/Carnegie, JP Morgan financed merger of Carnegie Steel and Elbert H. Gary's Federal Steel Company, became the first billion dollar company in America. Gold Standard, a monetary system where a currency is pegged to the price of a specific amount of gold, made gold the only metal for redeeming paper currency. Standard Oil/Rockefeller, controlled almost all production, processing, marketing, and transportation of oil, monopolized the oil industry. "Crime of 1783”, dropping silver dollars from official coinage by act of Congress in that year, prompted the adoption of the gold standard. Munn v. Illinois, A case in which Illinois was regulating grain warehouses and elevator rates, allowed the government to regulate private property for the good of the public. Sharecropping, landlords let tenants farm their land in exchange for a portion of their crops, landowners put tenants in perpetual debt in order to keep them in service to them. Pendleton Act, federal legislation that created a system in which federal employees were chosen based upon competitive exams, made job accessibility based on merit or skill rather than class or inheritance. Plessy vs. Ferguson, Plessy tried to use a whites only railway car in Louisiana to challenge the Separate Car Act, Plessy argued that it violated the 13th & 14th amendment, but the court sided with Ferguson, est. the precedent of "separate but equal" and provided the legal justification for the expansion of segregation in America Gilded Age, when industries and technology grew at a rapid pace from the end of the Civil War to the beginning of the 1900's, bettered America's economy and brought new innovations that changed the production process in industries. Jim Crow, refers to segregation in the south that was enforced, brought about a time of racial segregation from the 1870s to 1960s. Sherman Antitrust Act, federal law banning monopolies, brought back economic competition in industry and improved trade. Settlement Houses, Hull House, housing run by primarily middle-class native-born women that provided education, housing, food, child care, etc. to people struggling, helped unite and uplift communities in need. Laissez-Faire, economic system based on private ownership of business and transactions between private parties were free from government interference, Caused a dangerous fail in economy in 1893 when the stock market shattered. Social Darwinism, the use of Darwin's theory, but with the application of race to justify racism, was a way for white Americans to justify racism. New South, A vision for a self-sufficient southern economy built on modern capitalist values, industrial growth, and improved transportation, brought northern values to the south. Social Gospel, reform movement led by Protestant ministers who used religious doctrine to demand better housing and living conditions for the urban poor, was a catalyst for the progressive movement and addressed societal concerns. Key Unit 7 John Muir, Scottish-American naturalist, author, and an advocate of preservation of wilderness in the U.S, activism helped preserve Yosemite Valley, Sequoia National Park, and others. NAACP, founded in 1909 to abolish segregation and discrimination, to oppose racism and to gain civil rights for African Americans, got the Supreme Court to deem the Grandfather clause as unconstitutional which prevented people of certain groups from being granted certain rights and privileges. Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, industrial disaster in the history of the city of New York, causing the death of 146 garment workers who either died from the fire or jumped to their deaths, led to factory labor reforms over safety and working conditions. Pure Food and Drug Act, 1906 prohibited the sale of misbranded or adulterated food and drugs in interstate commerce, laid a foundation for the nation's first consumer protection agency, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Margaret Sanger, American leader of the movement to legalize birth control during the early 1900's, founded the birth control movement and became an outspoken and life-long advocate for women's reproductive rights. Recall and referendum, Progressive Era policy that allowed voters to change laws through initiatives, disapprove laws passed by Legislature through referendums, and remove an elected official from office through recall, increased the power of voters over the political process. W.E.B. DuBois, black intellectual who challenged Booker T. Washington's ideas on combating Jim Crow, called for the black community to demand immediate equality and was a founding member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). National Women's Party, women's organization founded by Alice Paul and Lucy Burns, fought for women's suffrage. Alice Paul, suffragist, feminist, and women's rights activists in the 1910's. main leader and strategist for the campaign for the 19th Amendment prohibiting sex discrimination in voting. Williams v. Mississippi 1898, the US Supreme Court upheld the poll tax, disenfranchisement clauses, literacy tests, and the grandfather clause, all of which were features of the 1890 Mississippi Constitution and statutes, made it nearly impossible for African Americans to vote in elections because of boundaries such as poll taxes. Lochner v. New York 1905, the Bakeshop Act prevented bakers from working more than 60 hours a week, but was challenged when an employee of Lochner wanted to work more, interpreted that New York violated the 14th amendment's right to liberty through employment. Newlands Reclamation Act, A 1902 law, supported by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt, that allowed the federal government to sell public lands, raised money for irrigation projects that expanded agriculture on arid lands. Muller v. Oregon 1908, A 1908 Supreme Court case that upheld an Oregon law limiting women's workday to ten hours, based on the need to protect women's health for motherhood, encouraged states to pursue protective labor legislature. Meat Inspection Act, prohibited the sale of adulterated or misbranded livestock and derived products as food, ensured sanitary slaughtering and processing of livestock. Dollar Diplomacy, an economic policy of the United States of America begun during the William Howard Taft Presidency (1909-1913), aimed at furthering the interests of the U.S. abroad by encouraging the investment of U.S. capital in foreign countries, specifically, Latin and South America. Spanish-American War, the US fighting against Spain over the independence of Cuba, ended the isolationist period the US was in at the time and got the US the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Teller Amendment, a proviso to President William McKinley's war plans that proclaimed to the world that when the US had overthrown the Spanish misrule, it would give Cuba its freedom, made it so that Cuba was able to become an independent state. Open Door Policy, the proposition to keep trade in China open equally to trade with all countries, preventing any one nation from controlling trade in the region, allowed the United States to expand its markets for industrialized goods. Panama Canal, The United States built the Panama Canal to have a quicker passage to the Pacific from the Atlantic and vice versa, reduced shipping costs by cutting more than 7,000 miles and helped extend U.S. naval power by allowing the fleets to move between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Roosevelt Corollary, a foreign policy statement by Teddy Roosevelt in 1904 that claimed the right of the United States to intervene in the domestic affairs of Western Hemisphere nations to maintain stability. stated that not only were the nations of the Western Hemisphere not open to colonization by European powers, but that the United States had the responsibility to preserve order and protect life and property in those countries. Theodore Roosevelt, President from 1901 to 1909 worked to expand US role in the world especially in Latin America, started the Progressive Era and was a big part of starting the National Parks service. Zimmerman Telegram, a 1917 telegram intercepted by the US from Germany's foreign secretary that urged Mexico to join the Central Powers against the US to receive in return previously stollen lands (Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas), prompted the US to join the Allied Powers and Mexico to avoid the war. Woodrow Wilson, leader of the Progressive Movement, led America into war in order to "make the world safe for democracy." Fourteen Points, a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I, used to undermine the Central Powers and to uplift the Allied Powers. League of Nations, the first intergovernmental organization established "to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security", guaranteed the territorial integrity and political independence of membering states. Treaty of Versailles, treaty detailing the financial reparations, disarmament, and loss of territory & colonies for Germany, started a recession in Germany and ended World War one. Teapot Dome Scandal, the secretary of the Interior, had leased the U.S. naval petroleum reserve at Wyoming's Teapot Dome to a private oil company, one of the most extreme examples of government corruption in United States history. Red Scare, a fear created by Vice President McCarthy, that communism would take over America, especially after the rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia, caused Americans, especially in the arts, to be accused of communism and tore America apart. Palmer Raids, a series of government actions against suspected radicals, anarchists, and communists commenced in 1919 by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, ignored the constitutional safeguards guaranteed citizens by the Constitution and jailed many people innocent of any crime or intent. Sedition Act of 1918, act deemed "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the American form of government, the Constitution, the flag, or the armed forces as criminal and worthy of prosecution, destroyed free speech in the US during World War one. Great Migration, movement of African Americans from the South to the industrial centers of the Northeast and the Midwest, caused a dramatic demographic change in the North. Modernism, cultural movement during the early 1900's, people went against traditional ideals, promoted technology and the forms of expression that were different and unique to the current time, caused people to start buying all the new gadgets even though they didn't have the money driving towards the Great Depression. Scopes Trial, 1925 prosecution of science teacher John Scopes for teaching evolution in a Tennessee public school, trial was viewed as an opportunity to challenge the constitutionality of the bill, to publicly advocate for the legitimacy of Darwin's theory of evolution, and to enhance the profile of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). Lost Generation, a group of writers who were disillusioned with 1920s American society, the self-exiled expatriates who lived and wrote in Paris between the wars. Harlem Renaissance, cultural explosion of African Americans music, art and literature in the early 20th century, roughly from the 1910's through the mid-1930's, a rising tide of self-pride and social activism in African Americans around the country. National Origins Act, a law that severely restricted immigration by establishing a system of national quotas that blatantly discriminated against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and virtually excluded Asians, increased Nationalism in the US and established a quota system to regulate the influx of immigrants in America. Sacco and Vanzetti, two Italian immigrants convicted for a crime with very little evidence, guilty verdict reflected the anti-immigrant and anti-radical attitude of American citizens, being sentenced to death only because they were anarchists & of Italian origin. Smoot-Hawley Tariff, raised import duties to protect American businesses and farmers, added considerable strain to the international economic climate of the Great Depression. Herbert Hoover, President from 1929 to 1932 pushing for prohibition bringing prosperity to the US for a short period of time, blamed for the stock market crash. Stock Market, several exchanges in which shares of publicly held companies are bought and sold, was the primary source for any company to raise funds for business expansions. Bonus March, jobless WWI veterans organized a group called the "Bonus Expeditionary Forces” (BEF) to march on Washington, DC, demanded immediate bonus payment for wartime services to alleviate the economic hardship of the Great Depression. Hundred Days, first hundred days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's office, helped get America through the Great Depression. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), a United States federal law of the New Deal era which reduced agricultural production by paying farmers subsidies not to plant on part of their land and to kill off excess livestock, it tried to reduce surpluses to then increase the value of crops. Public Works Administration, New Deal government agency (1933–39) designed to reduce unemployment and increase purchasing power through the construction of highways and public buildings, reduced unemployment by hiring the unemployed to build new public buildings, roads, bridges, and subways. Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC), An independent federal government agency responsible for protecting investors, maintaining fair and orderly functioning of securities markets, and facilitating capital formation. tried to put trust back into the US economy. National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act), In 1935 protected the right of labor to organize in unions and bargain collectively with employers, and established the National Labor Relations Board, monitored unfair labor practices. Welfare State, a way of governing in which the state or an established group of social institutions provides basic economic security for its citizens, provided basic economic security for its citizens by protecting them from market risks associated with old age, unemployment, accidents, and sickness. Social Security Act, created a social insurance program designed to pay retired workers age 65 or older a continuing income after retirement, established two types of provisions for old-age security: Federal aid to the States to enable them to provide cash pensions to their needy aged, and a system of Federal old-age benefits for retired workers. Keynesian Economics, a macroeconomic theory developed by the British economist John Maynard Keynes amid the Great Depression in the 1930s, overturned the then-prevailing idea that free markets would automatically provide full employment. Dust Bowl, the drought-affected south central United States in the aftermath of horrific dust storms, intensified the crushing economic impacts of the Great Depression and drove many farming families on a desperate migration in search of work and better living conditions. Tennessee Valley Authority, managed the river, reforested, and provided agricultural and industrial development to Tennessee, helped improve Tennessee land. Franklin D. Roosevelt, President from 1933 to his death in 1945 fought the Great Depression through the New Deal economic plan, major political leader during the Great Depression and WWII. Five-Power Treaty (Washington Naval Treaty), a treaty signed during 1922 among the major Allies of World War I, limiting naval construction, prevented an arms race. Kellogg-Briand Pact, multilateral agreement attempting to eliminate war as an instrument of national policy, was the most grandiose of a series of peacekeeping efforts after World War I. Good Neighbor Policy, American foreign policy toward Latin America under the Franklin Roosevelt administration, established that the US would leave domestic affairs in Latin America to themselves. Neutrality Act of 1935, tried to keep the United States out of war, by making it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms, or other war materials to belligerent nations, maintained US's isolationist values. The America First Committee (AFC), the foremost United States non-interventionist pressure group against the American entry into World War II, dissolved after the bombing on Pearl Harbor. Lend-Lease Act, set up a system that would allow the United States to lend or lease war supplies to any nation deemed vital to the defense of the United States, authorized the providing of materials to nations that protected the United States. Atlantic Charter, a joint declaration issued during World War II (1939-45) by the United States and Great Britain that set out a vision for the postwar world, first step towards world organization. Unilateralism, a tendency in Washington to take decisions without much regard for the interests or views of its own allies or the rest of the world, became a growing issue for US allied powers. Isolationism, advocated non-involvement in European and Asian conflicts and non-entanglement in international politics, allowed the US to establish that it would not get involved in 'war' encounters, but kept them involved in economic encounters. Fascism, a political system headed by a dictator in which the government controls business and labor and opposition is not permitted, endorsed a nationalistic, militaristic, economically self-sufficient, and totalitarianism based government. Totalitarianism, characterized by strong central rule that attempts to control and direct all aspects of individual life through coercion and repression, does not permit individual freedoms or rights. Executive Order 8802, banning discriminatory employment practices by federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work, desegregated the defense industry. Servicemen's Readjustment Act, gave returning WWII soldiers loans to buy houses and farms and set up small business and by making tuition and stipends available for them to attend college, helped them reintegrate into society. Executive Order 9066, authorized the evacuation of all persons deemed a threat to national security from the West Coast to relocation centers further inland, for 6 months, over 100,000 Japanese Americans were sent to internment camps. D Day, the day that the combined Allied armies led a massive invasion on the beaches of Normandy, France, the assault involved millions of troops and workers and led to the liberation of France, and the ultimate end to the war. Holocaust, to ensure German Supremacy, Hitler ordered for the eradication of Jews, non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and mentally and physically disabled, created concentration and death camps and killed millions of Jews. Island-Hopping, the American navy attacked islands held by the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean, turning point in WWII. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President from 1953 to 1961 was a US general before becoming president, continued New Deal programs and helped establish the Highway System. Korematsu v. United States, Korematsu was a Japanese-American who ignored Executive Order 9066 and stayed at his residence, the Supreme Court held that the wartime internment of American citizens of Japanese descent was constitutional. Battle of Midway, U.S. naval victory over the Japanese fleet in June 1942, in which the Japanese lost four of their best aircraft carriers, turning point in WWII. Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, two atomic bombs dropped on Japan in 1945 killed and maimed hundreds of thousands of people, first ever use of the atomic bomb and contributed to the end of WWII. Manhattan Project, a research and development project that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II, its success granted the U.S the bombs that ended the war with Japan as well as ushering the country into the atomic era. Harry S. Truman, President from 1945 to 1953 after the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt, led the US through the end of WWII and the beginning of the Cold War. Key Unit 8 Truman Doctrine, committed the United States to financial and resource assistance in order to contain the spread of communism, officially ended the US's period of isolationism. Containment, US policy that created alliances and protected countries susceptible to be taken over by communists, main approach to preventing the spread of communism. Yalta and Potsdam Conferences, the conference focused on forging a post-war peace, the rebuilding of Europe, and each nation trying to delicately create “spheres of influence” in their respective areas of the world, helped to officially end WWII in Japan, and was the start of the Cold War. Decolonization, the collapse of colonial empires, as the UN was forming it was a part of it that nations should be granted freedom, many nations granted freedom also joined the UN. Marshall Plan, aided the rebuilding of postwar Western Europe, aimed at preventing the spread of communism by bolstering capitalism and democracy with US funding. NATO/Warsaw Pact, allied groups that were prepared if one of their nations were attacked by the other group, started the nuclear arms race and established the Eastern and Western bloc. Liberalism, a political ideology that celebrated individual liberty, private property, competitive market economy, free trade, and limited government, helped with the fight for Civil Rights and gender equality. The Fair Deal, a domestic reform proposal that would advance the fight for Civil Rights and remove the Taft-Hartley Tariff, transferred the US from a wartime economy to a peacetime economy. HUAC (House of Un-American Activities Committee), congressional committee that investigated communism activities and influence in and outside of the US, big part of McCarthyism and was used to target democratic and liberal people in the US, also major part of second Red Scare. Domino Theory, a Cold War policy that suggested a communist government in one nation would quickly lead to communist takeovers in neighboring states, each falling like a row of dominos, large contributor to the second Red Scare. SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference), organization formed by MLK to unite black churches assist in the struggle for Civil Rights, helped create the major marches such as the March on Washington which bolstered the Civil Rights movement. Brown v. Board of Education, African American students were being denied public education due to segregation laws, ruled that "separate but equal" was unconstitutional. Montgomery Bus Boycott, after Rosa Parks was put in jail for refusing to give up her seat on the bus, bus boycotts sprung up in Montgomery, Alabama to protest civil rights, lead to the Supreme Court ruling that said that Montgomery's bus segregation laws were unconstitutional. Civil Rights Act of 1964, outlawed segregation of public accommodations, forbade discrimination on the basis of sex, as well as, race in hiring, promoting, and firing. Voting Rights of 1965, banned poll taxes and literacy tests that prevented African Americans from voting, gave African Americans the right to vote. Nation of Islam, a religious group, popularly known as the Black Muslims, founded by Elijah Muhammad to promote black separatism and the Islamic religion, was apart of uniting African Americans in the fight against discrimination. UFW (United Farm Workers), a union of mostly Mexican American farm workers founded by Cesar Chavez and Dolorez Huerta, gained labor contracts with higher wages and improved working conditions, galvanizing the Chicano movement. Stonewall Inn, a group of police raided a gay bar in Greenwich Village, NY, sparked riots and was the start of Gay Liberation as well as LGBTQ+ organizations. Warren Court, issued some landmark decisions affecting civil rights. separation of church and state, and police arrest procedures, was a liberal defender of peoples rights such as Brown v. Board. Burger Court, a conservative jurist appointed by Nixon, passed Roe v. Wade but brought back capital punishment and made homosexuality illegal. Affirmative Action, a program designed to remedy historic racial and gender imbalances in jobs and education, gave equal access to opportunities and improved many people's economic status. ERA (Equal Rights Amendment), a proposed amendment that would ban any discrimination based on sex in cases of divorce, property, employment, and etc, would have eliminated discrimination on the basis of gender. Cuban Missile Crisis, Soviet nuclear missiles were placed in Cuba causing panic in the US, Soviets removed missiles with promise that US would not invade Cuba. Operation Rolling Thunder, mass air bombing in North Vietnam, led to the sending of 180,000 more troops to get involved in the war. World Bank, a specialized agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation, helped rebuild countries in debt after WWII. Tet Offensive, coordinated attack on American & South Vietnamese troops by Viet Cong & North Vietnamese troops, led to decline of public support for the war because of the effect on the American people. Military Industrial Complex, relationship between military and defense industry and how it influenced US politics especially during the Cold War, used to continue growing military strength by increasing the amount of US weapons there were. Vietnamization, Nixon's policy that involved withdrawing 540,000 US troops from South Vietnam over an extended period of time, allowed South Vietnam to take over control of the fight against North Vietnam. Sputnik, first satellite ever launched into space and by the Russians, began the space race between Russia and the US and many other countries. Détente, a process of managing relations with a potentially hostile country in order to preserve peace while maintaining our vital interests, started to ease tensions between the US and USSR. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, Congress authorizing the use of any means necessary to protect US troops and any further aggression during the Vietnam War, effectively launched US involvement in the Vietnam War. Coexistence, a situation in which the United States and Soviet Union would continue to compete economically and politically without launching a thermonuclear war, diffused tensions between US and USSR. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), an economic organization consisting primarily of Arab nations that controls the price of oil and the amount of oil its members produce and sell to other nations, stabilized the oil market. Silent Majority, Nixon Administration's term to describe generally content, law-abiding middle-class Americans who supported both the Vietnam War and America's institutions, many of them were Democrats, including southern whites, northern Catholic blue-collar workers, and recent suburbanites who disagreed with the liberal drift of their party. War Powers Act, required the president to report to Congress within 48 hours after taking military action and that Congress had to approve any military action that lasted longer than 60 days, improved power distribution between the executive and legislative branches. Counterculture, a culture with lifestyles and values opposed to those of the established culture, started during the rise of hippies who brought about changes to cultural issues such as sexuality, gender roles, and relationships. Evangelicalism, Form of Christianity based on emotionalism and spirituality, a part of counterculture. Silent Spring, a book written by Rachel Carson to voice the concerns of environmentalists, started the environmentalist movement by pointing out urban development issues. The Feminine Mystique, a novel written in 1963 by Betty Friedan which spoke about feminist protest and the boredom of suburban housewifery, launched the feminist movement. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), a governmental organization signed into law by Richard Nixon in 1970 designed to regulate pollution, emissions, and other factors that negatively influence the natural environment, one of the first actions to regulate the environment crisis. NOW (National Organization for Women), largest feminist organization in the US, wanted to end sex discrimination and improve job opportunities for women. Watergate, a scandal involving an illegal break-in at the Democratic National Committee offices in 1972 by members of President Nixon's reelection campaign staff, led to the resignation of Nixon. Title IX, federal civil rights law, prohibits federally funded educational institutions from discriminating against students or employees based on sex. Baby Boom, marked by an increase in birth rates, occurred after WWII. Sunbelt, migration of the middle class to the suburbs and of many Americans to the South and West, lower energy costs and nonunion wages, state policies favorable to business, and, in the West, proximity to the increasingly important Pacific Rim nations. Levittowns, utilized mass production techniques to build inexpensive homes in suburban NY to relieve post war housing shortage, the first truly mass-produced suburb and is widely regarded as the archetype for postwar suburbs throughout the country. Great Society, a domestic program in the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson that instituted federally sponsored social welfare programs, meant to solve large social problems like hunger and poverty. Immigration Act of 1965, abolished an earlier quota system based on national origin and established a new immigration policy based on reuniting immigrant families and attracting skilled labor to the United States, abolished national origins quota. Rust Belt, northern industrial states of the United States, including Ohio, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, in which heavy industry was once the dominant economic activity, nations primary area of the steel industries. Stagflation, high rates of inflation, economic slowdown, and high rates of inflation, the only sustained period of stagflation in the US was in the 70s. Key Unit 9 Supply-side economics, theory of growing the economy by cutting government interference and taxes, high class people were given tax deductions for the hope of them giving their extra money to the lower classes. Iran-Contra Affair, scandal that erupted after the Reagan administration sold weapons to Iran in hopes of freeing American hostages in Lebanon, made people distrust Reagan. Persian Gulf War, conflict between Iraq and a coalition of countries led by the United States to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait which they had invaded in hopes of controlling their oil supply, resulted in Desert Storm and defeated Iraqi forces. Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader in the 80's, brought liberal ideas to the party and brought down the USSR. Al Qaeda, a network of Islamic terrorist organizations, led by Osama bin Laden, carried out the attacks on the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998, the USS Cole in Yemen in 2000, and the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001. World Trade Organization, an international organization that moderates global trade, kept peaceful relations between trading nations. Immigration and Nationality Act, abolished the "national-origins" quota and doubled the number of immigrants allowed to enter annually, immigrants came from Asia and Latin America. Defense of Marriage Act, defined marriage for federal purposes as the union of one man and one woman, allowed states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages and from receiving federal marriage benefits. USA Patriot Act, legislation passed in 2001 to improve the abilities of U.S. law enforcement to detect and deter terrorism, tore down the wall between law enforcement and intelligence officials so that they can share information and work together to help prevent attacks. Affordable Care Act, reform of private insurance, was enacted to increase the quality and affordability of health insurance, lower the uninsured rate by expanding public and private insurance coverage, and reduce the costs of healthcare for individuals and the government.

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