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M
melisa
12/4/2025
Chemistry
atomic structure & periodic table
274
•
Dec 4, 2025
•
Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table Explained
M
melisa
@melisa_mgbl
1 / 10
Atomic Structure Basics
Understanding atoms is like learning the building blocks of everything around you. Atoms contain three key particles: protons (positive charge, mass of 1), neutrons (no charge, mass of 1), and electrons (negative charge, virtually no mass).
The nucleus sits at the centre, packed with protons and neutrons, giving it a positive charge overall. Electrons whiz around this nucleus in shells or energy levels. Here's the crucial bit: atoms are normally neutral because they have equal numbers of protons and electrons.
Ions are different though - they're atoms that have gained or lost electrons, giving them an overall charge. The atomic number tells you how many protons an atom has, whilst the mass number is protons plus neutrons. So if you need to find neutrons, just subtract atomic number from mass number.
Quick Check: Atoms are absolutely tiny - about 0.1 nanometres across (that's 0.0000000001 metres!).
Chemical Formulas and Equations
Chemical equations are like recipes - they show you exactly what goes in and what comes out. Take CO₂: this formula tells you there's 1 carbon atom bonded to 2 oxygen atoms. Simple as that.
When writing equations, you'll have reactants (what you start with) on the left and products (what you end up with) on the right. The tricky bit is balancing equations - you need the same number of each type of atom on both sides.
For example: H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O. Count the atoms on each side and you'll see they match perfectly. This follows the law that atoms can't be created or destroyed in chemical reactions.
Top Tip: Always count your atoms systematically - hydrogen first, then metals, then non-metals, and oxygen last.
Mixtures and Chromatography
Mixtures are just two or more substances hanging out together without being chemically bonded - think oil and water. Pure substances contain only one element or compound, whilst mixtures can be separated using physical processes.
Paper chromatography is brilliant for separating coloured mixtures like inks or food dyes. You draw a pencil line near the bottom of filter paper, add your sample, then dip it in solvent. Different substances travel up the paper at different speeds.
The result is called a chromatogram - a pattern of spots that acts like a fingerprint for your mixture. Pure substances produce just one spot, whilst mixtures create multiple spots. The stationary phase is the paper, and the mobile phase is the solvent carrying everything along.
Remember: Always use pencil for your baseline - ink would interfere with your results!
Simple Distillation
Simple distillation is your go-to method when you want to separate a liquid from dissolved solids - like getting pure water from seawater. It works because the solvent (water) has a much lower boiling point than the dissolved solute (salt).
Here's how it works: heat the mixture until the water boils and becomes vapour at 100°C. The salt stays behind because its boiling point is way higher. The water vapour travels through a condenser where it cools back into liquid form.
You'll end up with pure water dripping into your collection beaker, whilst the salt remains in the original container. This technique is dead useful in the real world - it's how we get drinking water from seawater in many places.
Key Point: The huge difference in boiling points is what makes this separation method so effective.
Advanced Separation Techniques
Fractional distillation steps things up when you need to separate different liquids with closer boiling points, like ethanol and water. The mixture travels up a column that's hot at the bottom and cooler at the top, allowing different substances to condense at different heights.
Filtration handles the opposite problem - separating insoluble solids from liquids. The filter paper has tiny pores that let liquid molecules through but trap larger solid particles. Think of separating sand from water.
Both techniques rely on physical differences between substances. Fractional distillation uses different boiling points, whilst filtration uses different particle sizes. No chemical reactions needed - just clever physics doing the work for you.
Real World: Fractional distillation is how crude oil gets separated into petrol, diesel, and other useful products.
Crystallisation and Filtration Details
Crystallisation is perfect when you want solid crystals from a solution - like getting copper sulfate crystals that look properly geometric and beautiful. Heat your solution gently over a water bath until crystals start forming around the edges, then stop heating.
The filtration process breaks down into clear steps: pour your mixture into a filter funnel lined with filter paper. The liquid passes through whilst solid particles get caught. It's that simple, but incredibly effective.
For obtaining pure salt from rock salt, you'd grind the mixture, dissolve it in water (salt dissolves, sand doesn't), filter out the sand, then evaporate the water to leave salt crystals behind. Each step uses a different physical property to achieve separation.
Pro Tip: Slow, gentle heating gives you larger, more regular crystals that look much more impressive.
History of Atomic Theory
The story of atomic theory shows how science builds on previous ideas. John Dalton kicked things off in the 19th century, describing atoms as solid, indivisible spheres - basically tiny marbles.
J.J. Thomson discovered electrons in 1897 and proposed the plum pudding model - a ball of positive charge with electrons dotted throughout like raisins in a pudding. Seemed reasonable at the time, but science had more surprises coming.
Ernest Rutherford's alpha particle experiment in 1909 smashed the plum pudding model to bits. He fired particles at gold foil and found most went straight through, but some bounced back - proving atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny, dense nucleus. Niels Bohr then added electron shells, and James Chadwick discovered neutrons.
Mind-Blowing Fact: Rutherford's experiment showed atoms are 99.99% empty space - you're basically made of nothing!
Development of the Periodic Table
The periodic table we know today took decades to perfect. Early attempts by Newlands and Mendeleev arranged elements by atomic mass, but Mendeleev was cleverer - he left gaps for undiscovered elements and sometimes ignored mass order to group similar properties.
Newlands' Law of Octaves noticed that every eighth element had similar properties, like musical notes. Mendeleev went further, predicting the properties of missing elements so accurately that when they were discovered later, he looked like a genius.
The modern periodic table arranges elements by atomic number, not mass. Metals sit on the left, non-metals on the right. The group number tells you how many electrons are in the outer shell, whilst the period shows how many electron shells there are.
Smart Move: Mendeleev's willingness to leave gaps and ignore strict mass order was what made his table work brilliantly.
Metals vs Non-Metals and Group 1
Metals and non-metals are like opposite personalities. Metals form positive ions, conduct electricity and heat brilliantly, are shiny and strong, and can be hammered into shapes (malleable). Non-metals do the opposite - they're poor conductors, dull, brittle, and have lower densities.
Group 1 elements (alkali metals) are the softies of the metal world. They're so reactive they're stored under oil to stop them reacting with air or water. They have low melting points, low densities, and get more reactive as you go down the group.
This increasing reactivity happens because the outer electron gets further from the nucleus as atoms get bigger, making it easier to lose. That's why lithium just fizzes in water, but caesium would explode violently.
Safety First: Never mess about with alkali metals - even small pieces can cause serious reactions with water.
Group 7 Elements (Halogens)
Halogens are the reactive non-metals of Group 7, each with their own personality. Fluorine is a vicious yellow gas, chlorine is the dense green gas used in swimming pools, bromine is a red-brown liquid, and iodine forms dark crystals that sublime into purple vapour.
Unlike Group 1, halogens get less reactive as you go down the group. They exist as molecules (pairs of atoms) and their melting and boiling points increase down the group because the molecules get larger and intermolecular forces get stronger.
Displacement reactions show this reactivity trend perfectly - a more reactive halogen will kick out a less reactive one from its compound. So chlorine can displace bromine, and bromine can displace iodine, but not the other way around.
Pattern Spotting: Group 1 gets more reactive going down, Group 7 gets less reactive - they're perfectly opposite trends!
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Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table Explained
M
melisa
@melisa_mgbl
Ever wondered what makes atoms tick and how the periodic table actually works? This guide breaks down atomic structure, chemical reactions, and the periodic table in a way that'll make perfect sense for your GCSE exams.
Atomic Structure Basics
Understanding atoms is like learning the building blocks of everything around you. Atoms contain three key particles: protons (positive charge, mass of 1), neutrons (no charge, mass of 1), and electrons (negative charge, virtually no mass).
The nucleus sits at the centre, packed with protons and neutrons, giving it a positive charge overall. Electrons whiz around this nucleus in shells or energy levels. Here's the crucial bit: atoms are normally neutral because they have equal numbers of protons and electrons.
Ions are different though - they're atoms that have gained or lost electrons, giving them an overall charge. The atomic number tells you how many protons an atom has, whilst the mass number is protons plus neutrons. So if you need to find neutrons, just subtract atomic number from mass number.
Quick Check: Atoms are absolutely tiny - about 0.1 nanometres across (that's 0.0000000001 metres!).
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Chemical Formulas and Equations
Chemical equations are like recipes - they show you exactly what goes in and what comes out. Take CO₂: this formula tells you there's 1 carbon atom bonded to 2 oxygen atoms. Simple as that.
When writing equations, you'll have reactants (what you start with) on the left and products (what you end up with) on the right. The tricky bit is balancing equations - you need the same number of each type of atom on both sides.
For example: H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O. Count the atoms on each side and you'll see they match perfectly. This follows the law that atoms can't be created or destroyed in chemical reactions.
Top Tip: Always count your atoms systematically - hydrogen first, then metals, then non-metals, and oxygen last.
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Mixtures and Chromatography
Mixtures are just two or more substances hanging out together without being chemically bonded - think oil and water. Pure substances contain only one element or compound, whilst mixtures can be separated using physical processes.
Paper chromatography is brilliant for separating coloured mixtures like inks or food dyes. You draw a pencil line near the bottom of filter paper, add your sample, then dip it in solvent. Different substances travel up the paper at different speeds.
The result is called a chromatogram - a pattern of spots that acts like a fingerprint for your mixture. Pure substances produce just one spot, whilst mixtures create multiple spots. The stationary phase is the paper, and the mobile phase is the solvent carrying everything along.
Remember: Always use pencil for your baseline - ink would interfere with your results!
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Simple Distillation
Simple distillation is your go-to method when you want to separate a liquid from dissolved solids - like getting pure water from seawater. It works because the solvent (water) has a much lower boiling point than the dissolved solute (salt).
Here's how it works: heat the mixture until the water boils and becomes vapour at 100°C. The salt stays behind because its boiling point is way higher. The water vapour travels through a condenser where it cools back into liquid form.
You'll end up with pure water dripping into your collection beaker, whilst the salt remains in the original container. This technique is dead useful in the real world - it's how we get drinking water from seawater in many places.
Key Point: The huge difference in boiling points is what makes this separation method so effective.
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Advanced Separation Techniques
Fractional distillation steps things up when you need to separate different liquids with closer boiling points, like ethanol and water. The mixture travels up a column that's hot at the bottom and cooler at the top, allowing different substances to condense at different heights.
Filtration handles the opposite problem - separating insoluble solids from liquids. The filter paper has tiny pores that let liquid molecules through but trap larger solid particles. Think of separating sand from water.
Both techniques rely on physical differences between substances. Fractional distillation uses different boiling points, whilst filtration uses different particle sizes. No chemical reactions needed - just clever physics doing the work for you.
Real World: Fractional distillation is how crude oil gets separated into petrol, diesel, and other useful products.
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Crystallisation and Filtration Details
Crystallisation is perfect when you want solid crystals from a solution - like getting copper sulfate crystals that look properly geometric and beautiful. Heat your solution gently over a water bath until crystals start forming around the edges, then stop heating.
The filtration process breaks down into clear steps: pour your mixture into a filter funnel lined with filter paper. The liquid passes through whilst solid particles get caught. It's that simple, but incredibly effective.
For obtaining pure salt from rock salt, you'd grind the mixture, dissolve it in water (salt dissolves, sand doesn't), filter out the sand, then evaporate the water to leave salt crystals behind. Each step uses a different physical property to achieve separation.
Pro Tip: Slow, gentle heating gives you larger, more regular crystals that look much more impressive.
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History of Atomic Theory
The story of atomic theory shows how science builds on previous ideas. John Dalton kicked things off in the 19th century, describing atoms as solid, indivisible spheres - basically tiny marbles.
J.J. Thomson discovered electrons in 1897 and proposed the plum pudding model - a ball of positive charge with electrons dotted throughout like raisins in a pudding. Seemed reasonable at the time, but science had more surprises coming.
Ernest Rutherford's alpha particle experiment in 1909 smashed the plum pudding model to bits. He fired particles at gold foil and found most went straight through, but some bounced back - proving atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny, dense nucleus. Niels Bohr then added electron shells, and James Chadwick discovered neutrons.
Mind-Blowing Fact: Rutherford's experiment showed atoms are 99.99% empty space - you're basically made of nothing!
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Development of the Periodic Table
The periodic table we know today took decades to perfect. Early attempts by Newlands and Mendeleev arranged elements by atomic mass, but Mendeleev was cleverer - he left gaps for undiscovered elements and sometimes ignored mass order to group similar properties.
Newlands' Law of Octaves noticed that every eighth element had similar properties, like musical notes. Mendeleev went further, predicting the properties of missing elements so accurately that when they were discovered later, he looked like a genius.
The modern periodic table arranges elements by atomic number, not mass. Metals sit on the left, non-metals on the right. The group number tells you how many electrons are in the outer shell, whilst the period shows how many electron shells there are.
Smart Move: Mendeleev's willingness to leave gaps and ignore strict mass order was what made his table work brilliantly.
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Metals vs Non-Metals and Group 1
Metals and non-metals are like opposite personalities. Metals form positive ions, conduct electricity and heat brilliantly, are shiny and strong, and can be hammered into shapes (malleable). Non-metals do the opposite - they're poor conductors, dull, brittle, and have lower densities.
Group 1 elements (alkali metals) are the softies of the metal world. They're so reactive they're stored under oil to stop them reacting with air or water. They have low melting points, low densities, and get more reactive as you go down the group.
This increasing reactivity happens because the outer electron gets further from the nucleus as atoms get bigger, making it easier to lose. That's why lithium just fizzes in water, but caesium would explode violently.
Safety First: Never mess about with alkali metals - even small pieces can cause serious reactions with water.
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Group 7 Elements (Halogens)
Halogens are the reactive non-metals of Group 7, each with their own personality. Fluorine is a vicious yellow gas, chlorine is the dense green gas used in swimming pools, bromine is a red-brown liquid, and iodine forms dark crystals that sublime into purple vapour.
Unlike Group 1, halogens get less reactive as you go down the group. They exist as molecules (pairs of atoms) and their melting and boiling points increase down the group because the molecules get larger and intermolecular forces get stronger.
Displacement reactions show this reactivity trend perfectly - a more reactive halogen will kick out a less reactive one from its compound. So chlorine can displace bromine, and bromine can displace iodine, but not the other way around.
Pattern Spotting: Group 1 gets more reactive going down, Group 7 gets less reactive - they're perfectly opposite trends!
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user