A&P Chapters 1-4 excluding mitosis

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of cells that have a common function. Organ level: Organs are made up of different types of tissue. Organ System level: Organ systems consist of different organs. that work together closely Organismal level: the sum total of all structural levels. EXAM working together Organ Systems Integumentary: hair, Skin, nails. * jobs of each system * • forms external body covering •Protects deeper tissues from injury -Synthesizes vitamin D : houses cutaneous receptors. •Sweat & oil glands Skeletal: bones & joints. • protects & Supports body organs. •provides framework that muscles use for movement. Muscular: Skeletal muscles. •allows manipulation of the environment ·locomotion facial expression maintains posture : produces heat * job of each system * Organ Systems Lymphatic: bone marrow, thy mus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vessels •picks up fluids leaked from blood vessels & returns it to blood • disposes of debris in lymphatic stream houses white blood cells involved in immunity the immune response attacks foreign substances in body. Respiratory: bronchus, lungs, trachea, larynx • keeps blood supplied w/ oxygen & removes CO₂ Digestive: esophagus, large small intestine, Stomach, liver, rectum, anus •breaks down food into absorbable units that enter blood for EXAM distribution to body cells. ・Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Nervous: brain, Spinal cord, nerves. •fast-acting control system of body -ay • responds to internal external changes by activating -ng appropriate muscles & glands Endocrine thyroid gland, testis, ovary, pineal gland, pituitary gland, adrenal gland, Pancreas, thymus •glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells. Cardiovascular: heart : blood vessels •blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, CO₂, nutrients, wastes, etc... the heart pumps blood. Urinary: Kidney ureter, Urinary bladder, urethra • eliminates nitrogenous wastes • regulates water electrolyte, & acid-base balance of blood. Male Reproductive: testis, penis, prostate Female Reproductive: Mammary, ovary, uterus, vagina, uterine tube •Production of offspring •testis produce sperm & male sex hormone •male ducts i glands aid in delivery of sperm to femalexproductive tract •Ovaries produce eggs : female sex hormones. •Mammary glands produce milk for newborn The remaining female structures Serve as Sites for fertilization & development of fetus. SS Requirements for life. Maintain Boundaries: internal environment remains distinct from the external environment. Movement: activities promoted by muscular system. (propelling ourselves one place to another by running/ swimming & manipulate external environment w/ our fingers) (substances (blood, foodstuffs, s urine) are propelled through. internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive : Urinary systems. Contractibility: the muscle's ability to move by shortening Responsiveness: ability to sense changes in the environment & respond to them. Withdrawal reflex: pulling hand away from painful stimulius. Digestion: breaking down of ingested food to simple molecules that can be absorbed in the blood Metabolism: all chemical reactions that occur within body cells. •·-breaking down substances, synthesizing complex substances, : Using By ng nutrients : oxygen to produce ATP. Excretion process of removing wastes from body Reproduction: the original cell divides, producing 2 identical daughter cells that may be used for growth or repair. · reproduction of the human organism (making a new person) growth: increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole by increasing the number of cells JSS (45) Survival needs Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temp, & appropriate atmospheric pressure. Homeostasis • the body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions. even though the outside world changes continuously SIGNIFICANCE: adaquate blood levels of vital nutrients must be continuously present & heart activity : blood pressure must be continuously monitored & adjusted so blood is propelled to all body tissues. •Wastes can't accumulate : body temp must be controiled. All this needs done for the survival needs to be met receptor: sensor that monitors the environment. Responds to changes by sending input to the control center control center: determines the set point at which a variable is to be maintained. Analyzes input from receptor by comparing. it to the set point & determines appropriate response... Output flows from control center to the effector -ду -ing Effector: carries out the control center's response to the stimulus. Either reducing it so the whole control process is shut off or enhancing it so the process continues faster. Negative feedback what it is/ does* EXAM •the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. GOAL: prevent severe changes within body. regulates & body temp, blood sugar, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate : depth, blood levels of oxygen, Co₂, ² & Minerals ross (blood sugar rises, receptors sense changes, and the pancreas secrete -rays) Insulin into the blood which prompts body cells to absorb more glucose, removing it from blood Stream, As blood sugar falls, the stimulus for insulin release ends) EXC BUNJEVIN Dorsal Body Cavity visceral parietal lines internal body wall ines internal suatuo given an organ, know What body cavity it's th Cranial cavity Vertebral cowity Thorack cavity •diaphragm -abdominal cavity- Thoracic: lungs (pleura), nearl (pericardial), esophagus, trachea (also pericardial) Abdominal:Stomach, intestines, spieen, liver Pelvic: unnary bladder picturive organs, & rectum Cranial: bra Vertebral: Spinal cord 1 Body Bo -pelvic cavity []: Dorsal Body Cavity → cranial vertebral cavities : Ventral Body Cavity → thoracic 's abdominopelvic cavities ventral Giver Col • abdominopelvic cavity •cranial cavity •vertebral cavity -mediastinum -pleural cavity -pericardial cavity. abdominal cavity. intestines VAN int -Pelvic cavity. O:Mediastinum visseral pleurae -parietal pleurae • visceral pericardium Parietal pericardium • visceral peritaneum -parietal peritaneum RUQLUQ RLQLLO -thoracic- cavity abdominopelvic cavity gy ing SEROUS MEMBRANES -thin, double-layered SS memiomaines that cover the walls of the ventral body cavity the Outer surfaces of the organs it contains WHE Positive Feedback What it is/does * •the initial response enhances the original stimulus. (oxytocin intensifies labor contractions making them more frequent? more powerful. The increased contractions caused more oxytocin to be released, causing more contractions, and so on until boby is born. The birth ends the oxytocin release) Homeostatic Imbalance as we age, our body's control system becomes less efficient. /: Our internal environment becomes less Stable which increases. our risk for illness. jy when negative feedback is overwhelmed & positive feedback ng mechanisms take over, heart failure occurs. Anatomical Position body is erect, feet shoulder-width apart, palms face forward, thumbs point away from body • allows for a common reference so that regardless of the arrangement of a body or part, or even it's absence. all understand the location of the structure being discussed. -SS general terminology. DIRECTIONAL Superior: above inferior: below plane inferior anterior: facing forward posterior: toward the back Medial: toward the midline lateral: toward the sides Superior anterior transverse posterior img Proximal: closer to point of attachment. distal: farther from point of attachment MEAN Taterall oblique Section 2. subdivisions• midsagittal plane: lies directly on midline. sagittal ·• parasagital plane: offset from the midline LChapter 1 Intermediate between a more mediali a more lateral structure body planes Sagittal plane: divides body into left & right parts Proximal D distal + midsagittal parasagittal Frontal plane: divides body into anterior i posterior parts (vertical cut) transverse (cross-section) plane: divides body into Superior: inferior parts DSS Oblique Section: cut diagonally between horizontal & vertical planes K Frontal gy ing rays) Chapter 2 Chemistry. Matter: anything that occupies space : has mass •exists in solid, liquid,& gaseous states Energy: has no mass : does not take up space • the capacity to do work or to put matter into motion. • Kinetic Energy: energy in action. •does work by moving objects (pushing on other objects). • Potential Energy: Stored energy, inactive energy that has the capability to do work, but is not presently doing so. (water confined behind a dam has potential energy. When potential energy is released, it becomes kinetic energy. Dammed water becomes a rushing torrent when the dam is opened.) Forms of Energy Chemical energy: Stored in the bonds of chemical substances when Chemical reactions occur that rearrange the atoms of the chemicals in a certain way, the potential energy is unleashed: becomes kinetic energy. Electrical energy: results from movement of charged particles.. Electrical currents are generated when charged particle's move along or across. cell membranes. Mechanical energy directly involved in moving matter. Riding a bicycle, Your legs Provide Mechanical energy that moves the pedals.. Radiant energy: energy that travels in waves. Waves vary in length, called the electromagnetic system.. (radio waves Microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet waves, : X-rays) 2011 www 1 Atoms and Elements The properties of an element depend on the structure of its atoms Elements: unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. $ 4 Elements that make up about 96% of body weight 1·Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, & nitrogen * list them know they are the primary "elements Atom: each element is composed of essentially identical partides of building blocks, called atoms SUBATOMIC PARTICLES: Protons (p²): positive electrical charge with a mass of I amu (atomic Mass unit) neutrons (nº): neutral, so nucleus is positively charged overall. •Protons & neutrons have approximately the same Mass (1 amu) nucleus consists of protons neutrons. Electrons orbit nucleus. electrons (e-): negative charge equal in strength to the positive charge of the proton. However, only has about "/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu). Atomic number: equal to the number of protons in its nucleus Atomic mass: mass of the protons and neutrons p²+ n° Atomic weight: average of mass numbers of all isotopes Hydrogen (H) Ip"; Onº; le Atomic #: 1 Atomic mass: 1 Atomic weight: 1.008 Deuterium (²H) 1pt; Inº; le 1 2.014 圓 COMPOUND can be separated only by breaking bonds • all are homogenous Tritium (3H) IP²; 2nº; le 1 3 3.016 Isotopes: have the same number of protons and electrons, but differ in the number of neutrons they contain. Radioisotopes: The heavier isotopes of many elements are unstable, and their atoms decompose spontaneously into more stable forms which is called radioactivity. Isotopes that exhibit this behavior are called radioisotopes. How is matter combined into molecules & Mixtures? • atoms bound together to form molecules; different molecules can make mixtures. Molecule: 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds (H₂) Compound: 2 or more different kinds of atoms bind (H₂O) chemically Mixture: 2 or more components are physically intermixed. MIXTURE •no chemical bonding b/t components. • can be separated physically heterogenous or homogenous Types of Mixtures: Solutions: homogenous Mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids, or solids. Do not settle out. (mineral water do not scatter homogenous: exactly the same composition throughout. Colloids: heterogenous translucent mixtures (cyto, sol) Tight Scatter ·large solute particles that do not settle out (jello) light Suspension: heterogeneous Mixtures (blood) ·large visible solutes tend to settle out, may scatter light (blood) EXAM 3 types of chemical bonds. ·lonic, Covalent, and Hydrogen. lonic bonds transfer electrons INTERMEDIATE Covalent bonds share electrons STRONGEST Hydrogen bonds: form when a hydrogen atom, already covalently linked to one electronegative atom, is attracted by another electron-hungry atom. St + Na IONIC BOND electrons transferred to meet oclet rule ૨૫૦૫૨ ૦ ૦ ૦૦૧) COVALENT BOND electrons shared to meet octet rule 5- HYDROGEN BOND the slightly positive ends (st) of water molecuks aligned with the Slightly negative (s- of other water molecules Doble pou kalamagamont zuen gora/ 201209142 maht E EN AANKONDİA 0. EXAM • Octet Rulle. except for shell I, which is full when it has 2 electrons, atoms have 8 electrons in their valence shell. 2e He Helium. Neon Polar vs Nonpolar compounds EXAM 0-C-0 • Nonpolar: equal electron sharing (don't have "/- ends) (onbendical)) •Polar: unequal electron sharing (water, H₂D) Hon EXAM * What they are, job, characteristic site Biological Molecules Carbohydrates: group of Molecules that includes sugars & starches ・contain carbon, hydrogen, & Oxygen ·can be classified according to size : solubility: MONOSaccharide: One sugar simple sugars are the monomers (building blocks) of other carbohydrates ("Single-chain structures containing 3-7 carbon atoms examples: glucose (a herose > six-carbon) is blood sugar deoxyribose (a penrose five-curbon) is part of DNA. galactose : fruchse (hexoses) are isomers of glocoase 4 (same molecular formuke (Cutt, 0w) but atums arranged different) /Carbohydrates, Lipide Organic Compounds: Contain combonds make by living things from most use Inorganic Compounds: do not contain courbon (ware, suls, ands "bases). EXAM What it is, jobs, characteristics * DISaccharide: Double sugar formed when 2 Monosaccharides join by dehydration synthesis examples: sucrose (glucose + fructose) is cane (table sugar maltose (glucose + glucose) is malt sugar • too large to be transported through cell membranes, so they are hydrolyzed to monosaccharides (water is added= each bond is broken) POLYSaccharide: polymers of simple sugars (monosacharides) linked together by clehydration synthesis. ·large, fairly insoluble molecules = ideal storage products. examples: starch storage carbohydrate of plants. glycogen: Storage carbohydrate of animals •Stored Primarily in skeletal muscle & liver cells use glycogen to maintain glucose levels CARBOHYDRATE FUNCTIONS MAJOR FUNCTION: provide a ready easily used source of cellular fuel & ENERGY glucose is broken down & oxidized within cells. ↳> During this, electrons are tranferred, releasing the bond energy stored in glucose. This energy is used to Synthesize ATP : ATP supply sufficient = carbohydrates convert to glycogen or fat i stored ALTUNGS a wal wakat 1919 mm 19 make up a Phospholipid EXAM EXAM What it is, jobs, characteristics.* Lipids insulate body organs, build cell membranes, & provide stored energy • insoluble in water, dissolve easily in other lipids in organic Solvents (alcohol, ether) • all lipids contain carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen Lipids include... Tryglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids Triglycerides: fats when solidt, oils when liquid LONG-TERM energy source) (carbs are short-term) •Provides insulation protects from mechanical trauma Composed of 2 types of building blocks.... fatty acids: linear chains of carbon & hydrogen atorms glycerol modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol) SATURATED: fatty acids chains w/ only single covalent bonds blt carbon atoms UNSATURATED: one or more double bonds bit carbon atoms. (spelled it wrong, I know...) Phospolipids: 2, rather than 3, fatty acid chains. ·3rd chain replaced by a phosphate group (PO4) w/ an attacked nitrogen-containing group fatty acid tails (hydrophobic : tear water) ・interact only w/ other nonpolar molecules. Polar head: (hydrophilic: love water) ・interact w/ other polar molecules (H₂0) - Chief component of cell membranes - fat deposits protect & insulate body organs. Steroids: flat molecules Made of 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings -fat soluble & contain little oxygen (like tryglycerides) Most important steroid molecule: cholesterol raw material for synthesis of vitamin D, Steroid hormones, & bile salts. vital to homeostasis without, no reproduction ✓ Eicosanoids: derived from 20-carbon fatty acid found. in all cell-membranes Exam important: prostaglandins: play roles in blood clotting, regulation of blood sugar, inflammation, labor contractions *What it is, jobs, characteristics* Proteins •body's basic structural material : have many vital functions •Proteins include enzymes, hemoglobin of blood, : contractile proteins of muscle Structural proteins: mechanical support (strength of boxes, tendons, ligaments) Enzyme proteins: essential for every biochemical reaction in body transport proteins: Moving substances (in blood Or membranes) across plasma (ex. hemoglobin transports oxygen in blood) Contractile proteins: Movement (Actin's myosin cause muscle cell contraction : function in cell division) Communication proteins: transmit signalf bit cells can act as chemical messengers or receptors (ex. insulin acts as receptor to regulate blood sugar levels) Defensive proteins:protect against clisease. Antibodies released by immure cells to (bacteria, toxins, viruses) EXAM he was bro sodsoud: crowns Exam 2 Major classes: DNA i RNA * what it is, jous, Cheracteristics Amino acids •building blocks of protein. •act as either a base (proton acceptor) or an acid (proton donor) - contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, & nitrogen (2 contain sulfor) Proteins are long chains of amino acids joined together by dehydrations, peptide bond: acid end of one amino acid linked to the amine of the next 2 united amino acids: dipeptide, 3 united: tripeptide 10 or more: polypeptide DNA (Deokgribonucleic acid) sugar deoxyribose * DNA VS. RNA* XXX DOUBLE HELIX •found in nucleus •2 nucleotide chains held by hydrogen bonds. is the genetic material; directs protein synthesis; replicates itself before cell division. Bases: Adenine (A) →Thymine(T), Guanine (6) + Cyrosine (c) base pairing RNA (Ribonucleic acid) Sugar: ribose INLINLININ Single Strand •found in cytoplasm. •carries out the genetic instructions for protein synthesis Bases Adenine (A)->Uracil (u), Guanine (6) + (ytosine (c) base pairing 1 mRNA messenger RNA, ERNA: transfer RNA, rRNA: vibosomal RNA (copy of gene) (carry amino acids) gene: Sequence of nucleotides START CODON: AUG codons: groups of 3 nucleotides STOP CODONS: UAA, VAG, UGA anti codon: series of 3 nucleotides of tRNA A Facid LOVA GA coden CVV- WEST word sort gen AMO EXAM Acids Bases •Electrolytes that lonize & dissociate in water •can conduct an electrical corrent acids: Sour taste, can react w/ (dissolve) Many metals "releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts defined as profon donors: a hydragen ion is just a hydrogen nudeus, which consists of a single "naked" proton When dissolved in water: release hydrogen ions (protons) & anions •Concentration of Protons determine acidity of solution. (BASES/: bitter taste, slippery, proton acceptors. proton acceptor: take up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts also dissociate when dissolved in water, but hydroxyl ions (OH) &cations are liberated concentration of the more hydrogen ions in a solution = more acidic hydrogen ions is measured greater concentration of hydroxyl ions = more basic in concentration units Called PH units pH of 7 =neutral 47= acidic 77= alkaline Exam * what it is active us. passive, how it Passive Transport Hypotonic. hypo= less / not enough solute ·less Solute, more water. /all move down Substances cross membrane without any energy 3 types: simple diffusion: Movement of molecules /ions from high concentration to low concentration (down lalong concentration gradient) directly through lipid bilayer (both solvent & solute move) facilitated diffusion: Movement of moleculestions down concentration. gradient by binding to carrier proteins or moved through water-filled channel proteins (both solvent & Solute Move) Osmosis: Diffusion of a solvent (water) down concentration. gradient through a selectively permeable membrane (only sowveent) Tonicity the ability of a solution to change the shape of cells by altering the cell's internal water volume Isotonic iso- same ·equal concentration of water inside & outside of cell membrane. water moves in & out of cell @ same rate. water moves in cell through osmosis. · Cell will expand & burst concentration gradient Hypertonic. hyper-more more solute, less water • Water moves out cell by osmosis. •Cell will shrink EXIAM *What it is, Active vs. Passive, how it forks* Active transport •when a cell uses energy to move solutes across membrane MOVES AGAINST concentration gradient low high concentration example: Sodium Potassium Pump Nations pumped outside cell where Nat concentration is high Kions pumped inside cell where K² concentration is high EXAM PROCESS: Step 1: 3 Nations in cytoplasm bind to a carrier protein. Step 2: a phosphate group from an ATP molecule binds to carrier protein. Step 3: the binding of the phosphate group swings the carrier protein open. allows the 3 Nar rons to be released outside cell Step 4: 2 K ions located outside cell bind to carrier protein. Step 5: When phosphate group is released, the carrier protein swings open to the inside of the cell Step 4: The 2 K+ ions are released into cytoplasm : cycle repeats PROTEN SYNTHESIS Long answer Transcription • occurs in nucleus uses mRNA as a template → MINA: AUG CCC UAA VAG DNA: TAC GGG ATT ATC to rewrite DNA into miRNA I codon: I amino acid transferred out of nucleus : to ribosome Translation •Occurs in ribosome • attaches amino acids to correct codons to form a sequence of proteins (poly peoride) uses tRNA to carry anticodons to codons Protein Synthesis: 1410000 DNA Pano wwwwww Exhi nuclear membrane 1 F-nuclear pore anti codons mRNA Tissues Nervous: internal communication (brain, spinal cord, nerves) EXAM arring with BUD 000 Ranticodons TILL *Characteristics & Muscle: Contracts to cause movement (skeletal muscles, cardiac musdes, smooth muscles) Epithelial: forms boundaries bit different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters (sheet of cells that cover body surface or line body cavities) Clining of digestive tract organs, glands (pancreas), skin surface (epidermis) Connective: Supports, protects, binds other tissues together (bones, tendons, fat & other soft tissue): * Characteristics Epithelial tissue simple- I layer stratified=> 1 layer Simple Squamous: Single layer of flat cells, disc-shaped nudei FUNCTION: allows materials to pass by diffusion : filteration in sites where protection isn't important, secretes lubricating substances in linings of ventral body cavity (serosae) LOCATION: Kidneys, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, & lymphatic vessels Simple cuboidal: Single layer of cube like cells w/ spherical nuclei. FUNCTION: Secretion & absorption. LOCATION: Kidneys, ducts Secretory portions of small glands jouary surface. PODB001 2000 2000 Dall ASTRON 12 natg Exte 12ange nistof 2 EXAM * скачаентistics ite simple columnar: Single layer of fall cells, round/oval nuclei FUNCTION:absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, & other substances; cilided type=propel mucus by ciliary action. LOCATION. Digestive tract, gallbladder, & excretory docts, ciliated a small bronchi, uterine tubes, & parts of uterus. pseudo stratified columnar: single layer, differing heights, nuclei @ different levels FUNCTION: Secrete substances (mucous); Propulsion of mucus LOCATION: trachea & upper respiratory tract nonciliated: male's sperm-carrying ducts : ducts of large glands. Stratified squamous: several layers, flat cells on surface. FUNCTION: Protect underlying tissues LOCATION: esophagus, mouth, & vagina. Keratinized: epidermis transitional surface cells are done shape. FUNCTION: Stretches readily permits stored urine to distend Urinary bladder LOCATION: Lines ureters, bladder, & part of urethra EXAM Connective Tissue Connective Tissue- Connective Tissue Proper *Characteristics →Cartilage › Bone Blood →Loose- Areolar Adipose Reticular Regular →→Dense →→→ Irregular Elastic areolar: universal packing material bit other tissues. • binds body parts together while allowing them to move freely . over one another. • Holds body fluids •Defends against infection Stores nutrients as fat in adipocytes. LOCATION: Under epithelia; forms lamina propia of mucous membranes, Packages organs, surrounds capillaries. adipose: provides reserve food fuel, insulates against heat loss, supports & protects organs. LOCATION: Under skin in subcutaneous tissue, around Kidneys 4 eyeballs, within abdominal, in breasts. reticular: form soft internal skeleton that supports other cell types 1 LOCATION: Lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, Spleen) Dense regular attaches muscles to bones or to muscles, attaches bones to bones, withstands stress when pulling force is applied in I direction. LOCATION: tendons, ligaments, aponevroses * Characteristics * Dense Irregular withstands tension exerted in many directions, Provides structural strength. LOCATION: Fibrous capsules of organs & joints, dermis, submixos a (digestive tract) Dense Elastic: allows tissues to recoil after stretching, maintains Pulsatile flow of blood through arteries, aids passive recoil of lungs LOCATION: Walls of large arteries, within ligaments in vertebral column, walls of bronchial tubes. EXAM Hyaline cartilage: Supports & reinforces, resilient cushion, resists Compressive Stress Elastic cartilage: maintains shape of a structore while allowing. great flexibility Bone: supports & protects provides levers for the muscles to act on, stores calcium & Minerals & fat, blood cell formation. LOCATION: Bones. Fibro cartilage: absorb compressive shock LOCATION: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joint Blood transport respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, 's Other Substances