how cells release energy, DNA structure, DNA replication, binary fission, mitosis, sexual reproduction and meiosis, patterns of inheritance

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ATP - about 36 molecules of ATP KR RR RR RR R aerobic celluior respiration is a process that requires oxygen 4 cellular respiration is always aerobic, but many organisms can survive in the absence of oxygen 1 Anaerobic cellular respiration - doesn't require oxigen → uses another receptor other -only glycolysis can happen (because it doesn't require oxygen). than oxygen - makes less ATP and is less efficient Fermentation: no oxygen present and no use of another receptor -allows glycolysis to produce ATP - sustainable for single celled organisms - not sustainable for us Fermentation uses piNvate to oxidize NADH, and regenerate NAD+ Alcohol fermentation - yeast - Fermentation: The Rinvate is converted into alcohol, lactic acid, or other byproducts lactid acid fermentation - bacteria and muscle cells. -Only creates 2 ATP during glycolysis. ☆ cellular respiration and Photosynthesis are inverses of each other. 6 CO₂ + 6H₂O → C6H12 + 600₂ Cellular respiration C6H₁2O6 + 60₂ 600₂ + 6H₂0 + ATP ܝܠ created energy Chapter 7: DNA Structure and gene function. What is DNA? -DNA IS a molecule of nucleic acid (made up of nucleotides) - Stores information that cells need to produce proteins Structure of a nucleotide each nucleotide consist of one phosphate group • one molecule of deoxyribose sugar. • one nitrogenous base, either adenine, guanine, cytosine, or Thymine. phosphate group Structure of DNA: -nucleotides Join together into Strands of DNA -one DNA molecule is made of two strands of nucleotides - Two Strands wind together into a helical shape -DNA Strands are held together by base pairing Adenine bonds with thymine. guanine bonds with cytosine protein production: NHrogenous base → Deary ribose Sugar Transcription Translation = protein synthesis (AT GC V A A Le G what is RNA ? - a nucleic acid made of nucleotides -generally single stranded unlike pra which is dovne stranded -carriers protein encoding information; helps make proteins and speed up reactions. -protein production begins with DNA -gene-Small region of a Chromosome. - The sequence of DNA in each gene encodes for a specific protein protein production occurs in two stages. = ENA Synthesis Sugar phosphate backbone Base pairing nitrogenous base pairs Transcription and Translation: nuacus. DNA Xceee TEMA cytoplasm Ribosome protein →Gell Transcription occurs inside of the nucleus - Translation occurs in the ribosomes inside of the cells cytoplasm Transcription is RNA Synthesis: -Transcription uses and as a template to produce RNA (INA nucleoticles pair with DNA) -Transcription occurs in 3 Steps #1) Initiation- RNA polymerase binds to promoter (start of the gene) and also unwinds the two Strands OF DUA -DNA Strand encodes for RNA and the other strand does not participate in transcription #2) Elongation-2NA polymerase moves along template strand adding RNA #3) termination- KNA paymerase reaches the (terminator) Fand at the end of a gene -RNA IS complete and dna becomes a double helix again! Translation builds the protein: (3 Steps) codon- 3 nucleotide sequence that codes for an amino acid mRNA codes for proteins +2NA-Translates genetic code Translation initiation #1: Start cacon is created-first codon in amino acid. Translation elongation #2. amino acids are joined together and +RNA brings. more amino acids. Translation termination #3: ribosomes reach step codon, no more amino acids can be added so the protein is complete. protein synthesis: (creating Proteins). -requires alot of energy. - Only produced when needed. - happens in both prokay ores and Eukaryotes Chapter 8: DNA Replication, binary Fission, and mitosis sex life cycle: Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis. Humans a fertilized egg, or zygote divides by mitosis. cells DNA before ✓replication Roles of mitosis: -allaus an organism to grow and develope, repair tissues, and regenerate loss body parts -mitosis produces body cells (ex blood, bone, skin cells) -diploid cels DNA replication: -DNA replication occurs in multiple Steps, The process creates two new strands (a parent. Stand and a daughter Strand) →→→ Semi conservative replication xoxo m m > ↓ produce two copies that each contain. one of the original strands of DNA and one new strand. cell division: protaNotes-divide by binary fission. one Single Chromosome as cell prepares to divide DNA IS replicated and attaches to inside as the cen membrane after replication is complete. The cell membrane extends and grows between 2 DNA /moreaus, splitting them apan, The cell divides in hair, Forming two daughter cells, each identical to the orginal meosis occurs during Ⓒ reproduction Da A evicoryotes-divide by mitosis prophase-Chromosomes condense and Spindlies Form metaphase-chromosomes line up in the center of the cell Anaphase - Chromaticis seperate and move to opposite sides of the cen Telephase-Two new nucles form and Spindle Fibers disappear cytokenesis- division of the cytoplasm into two new celis Interphase process repeates The cell cycle: G₂ Phase additional grauth and prep COL Clusi S phase (DNA Replication) G₁ Phase normal cel Function and grauth prophase metaphase Anaphase Telephase MITOSIS cell division Apoptosis-programmed cell death puning interphase! The cell is not dinding. - most of a cells life is spent during interphase. G1 phase. The cell graus. and Functions normally. 6₂ Phase- produces proteins that are necessary for mitosis. mitasis divison of the nucleus, which is followed lay cytokenisis, division of the cell HtSeir Sphase - cell replicates entire genome-eveN chromosome Now it's commited to diude 145 DNA Replication using enzymes: → hav DNA is seperated Helicase- Seperates and unwinds 2 Strands OF OINA Single Stranded binding proteins- ensure dna strands don't bind back together. primase lays rna bases UAGC (makes and Stick (Primer) DNA polymerase - add DNA nucleotides (complementaN bases). ligase-joins together fragments so it can be one strand. Chapter 9: Sexual Reproduction and measis 2 Types of reproduction Asexual reproduction -one parent organism replicates it's DINA •Offspring are genetically identical to parent • Survive best in unchanging envlornents •Sexual reproduction/ • -DNA From offspring comes from 2 parents. - creates genetic diversity, Surviving well. in Changing enviornments. measis overview: measis halves chromosomes number and scrambles the alleis. 4 genetically. different gametes (sex cells (Sperm and egg). are produced (meosis 1: homologous chromosomes prophase homologous chromosomes pair up and attach to spindle Fibers. metaphase If homologous Chromosomes line up in one row Anapnasel; homologaus Chromosomes seperate Telephasel; Chromatias remain together. Asexual reprod, Sexual reprod. OD in meosis dna replicates once, but the nucleus divides. twice (goes through PMAT 2 times) (meosis 2: prophase 2: chromosomes attach to spindle metaphase 2: chromosomes line up in one row Anapnase 2: Chromatids seperate Telophase 2: for new cells have each are set of chromosomes. 50 vacab words: Chapter 9/ Autosomes- number of Chromosomes (humans have 22 sets of homaogous autosomes). Sex chromosomes- homologous chromosomes. humans have one set of Sex Sets carry same geres, but different DNA sequence Chromosomes XX (female) xy (male) Alleles-homologous pairs carry different alleles, which are alternative versions of the same gene gametes- sex cells. gamete Fusion - creates new organism when two haploid cells. (egg and Sperm) Fuse at Fertilization-one diploid zygote is fome Zygote- the first cell of a new organism haploid - one set of chromosomes = 23 chromosomes (sex cells). diploid- 2 sets of Chromosomes = 46 Chromosomes (Somatic cells) nondisjunction errors in meosis Crossing over: -two homologous Chromosomes pair up and exchange pieces Scrambling genetic. material -happens in prophase I independent assortment! - Chromosomes align randomly, Scrambling the combo OF Chromosomes for each gamete. - happers in metaphase I 2 Chapter 10: patterns of inheritence genetics vocab- alleles - homologous pairs with same genes, but different versions of genes LO CUS- Location of a gen on a chromosome homologous pair- 22 pairs, I set of sex chromosomes True breeding - Offspring that are genetically identical (MENDEL) Hybrids- resembles The breeders, but produce mix offspring (MENDEL) pominant alleles- seen whenever present (law of dominance) recessive alleles - only seen when dominat trait is not present (encodes for protein). genotype-Shaus individuais two alleles for one gene, determines Phenotype (gene) phenotype- physical appearice nomozygous dominant - (YY) two dominat alleles for a gene Heterozygous - (Yy) one dominant and one recessive trait homozygous recessive (yy) two reseccive alleles punnett square-uses genotype of parents to reveal which alleles the Offspring may. inherit mahohybrid cross- Single trait/ Factor (punnett square for each trait). dihybrid cross- Tracks inheritence of two genes at once law of independent assortment. The segregation of one allele does not inficene anoth (blonde hair does not mean blue eyes) - traits do not transfer together product rule- probability of traits coming up in genotype linked genes- cont go through independent assortment because they are near each other on a Chromosome Incomplete dominance does not go all the way through dominance and creates a blend of genes traits. Lex. Pink Flower from red and white) Codominace-alleies do not mask each other (ex. spotted white and red flower) - creates a blended orespring. Pleiotropy - one gene has many phenotypes epistasis- occurs when a genes product affects the expression of another gene |k1 generation - First generation bred of parents. F2 generation. The second law of segregation- During Formation each gene Seperates so gametes only carry one OF gamete allele per gene gregar mendel: uncovered basic laws of inheritence through pea plants - Offspring gave mendel cives about parent genes discovered some alleles are dominant and recessive. -not all genes follow the law of dominace (non-mendelian genetical - incompete dom. - codom. - Pleatropy. -epistasis M Sex linked genes: -egg cames x chromosome - sex chromosome from the sperm determines OFFSprings gencter (XY) or (xx) why do reseccive derects on the x-Chromosome show up in boys usually inot girls? -because a derfect wand have to occur for both X4 copies, while for boys It only has to accur for one x-chromosome which is more common (84) FE CHAPTER 1: The scientific study of life Biology: The scientific study of life. • Includes all Forms of life; human, bacteria, and plants Characteristics of life!. • all organisms are made of cells ceus (basic unit of life) - every organism consists of one or more ceus. • all organisms have DNA -DNA carries genetic information that is passed onto Future generations - All cells use DNA to produce proteins which carry on likes work LIFE Shares 6 characteristics:/ #1) LiFe is organized -The matter that makes up life is organized into atoms - The smallest chemical unit of pure sub. -Atoms are organized into molecules - a group of Joined atoms -molecures are organized into organelles - membrane-band Structure with specific function in a cell -organelles are organized into cells - Fundamental unit of life -cells are organized into tissue- collection of specilived cells that function in a coordinated fashion -tissue are organized into organs +Issue consists of tissue used for specific Functions - organs+are organized into organ systems - connect physically or chemically that function together Life is organized into individual organisms - single living individival -Individual organisms are organized into populations - same species same time and place -populations are organized into communities - Populations that have the same reigon -Communities are organized into ecosystems - iNing and non-living components of an area -Ecosystems are organized into a Biosphere global ecosystem; where infe is possible ↓ • organization leads to emergent properties. - components react together to complete tasks easier than If they are seperate #2) Lire requires energy energy From the sun ↑ -Producers - extract energy From nonliving enviornment (autotrophs-self feeding) -consumers - obtain energy from eating other organisms (heterotrophs - not seif Feeding). Decomposers-obtain nutrients from dead organisms and organic waste Tree of life Branches? Learning objectives/ • Characteristics of living things • Differentiate autotrophs and heterotrophs • Describe homeostasis • Discuss and apply the steps. of the scientific method. what are all living things made of? -cells what does every organism on earth possess ? - one or more cells. Like is organized: - List the hierarchical order of living things #1) Bacteria #2) Archaea #3) EukaNa B CHAPTER ONE A Atoms ↓ Molecules organelles cells TISSUE organs argan tissue organisms populations community too System Biosphere STUDY GUIDE - What is life - (5 characteristics) #1) Life is organized #2) Life requires energy #3) life requires homeostasis #4) life requires reproduction/growth #5) LiFe evolves live requires internal consistency: what is homeostasis and why is It important for living things? process by which a cell or organism maintains internal equilibrium to help cells or organisms keep living. Life evolves! -Change in characteristics aer time. to suit their enviornment What are emergent / properties? • emergent properties arise at each level of organization • components interact together and the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Life requires energy: Define producers/ consumers, and decomposers. Producer (autotroph) - extract energy and nutrients from the non living enviornment consumers (heterotrophs)- obtain energy. and nutrients by eating other organisms Decomposer are consumers that obatain nutrients from dead organisms and organic waste. Lire grows and reproducts: what are the two types of reproduction ? asexual -one parent, identical DNA sexual two parents, changing enviornment and DNA ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄAAAA. CHAPTER 2: The Chemistry of life Lire "matters" -matter that makes up of every object consists of one or more elements organized into atoms and molecules The elements of life: element- a substance that cannot be broken down. chemical means. into other substances. The periodic table: •The periodic table lists all known elements. 6 • each element has an atomic number and weight. Atom: The smallest piece of an element that retains. atomic #i Characteristics of an element amt: P (+) Subatomic particles: smaller Pieces of an atom (protons, neutrons and electrons). G Carbon 6 most common elements: - carbon atomic 12.01 mass Chapter 2.1 - Hydrogen - oxygen Nitrogen - Phosphorus Sulfur 00 Electrons: Surround atomic nucleus and move quickly! Protons and neutrons: are close together in atomic nucleus, which is the center of an atom. Subatomic particals are electrically charged → protons = atomic # Electrons (-) protons (+) = atomic # (exist in energy Shells) in pairs: neutrons (not) electrons neutrons = atomic mass - atomic # ✓ Carbon Atom nucleus Mass - O Mass I Mass I Isotopes: same atomic # different atomic mass (based OFF differing neutrons) chemical bonds: link atoms together into a molecule electrons determine chemical bonding. Types of Chemical bonds: -Couaient bonds. -double T covalent bonds Polar and non-poiar loonds ya kus - Hydrogen bonds (atraction) R R R R R R R R R R R R R Covalent bonds shared electrons double covalent bonds ↑- Sharing multiple pairs of electrons. non-polar covalent bonds. This type of bond Forms when atoms have similar electroneg. Polar covalent bonds - Large difference in electroneg., electrons are not shared evenly So they are partially charged Hydragen bonds (attractions) - very strong attraction (not bonded) creates emergent Pro. Periodic Tabel ↓ Electronegativity: measures an atoms ability to attract electrons -electroneg. Chemical bonds Chemical bands : difference determine 9 properties of water: Chap 2.2 1. water is conesive 2. water is adhesive. Concentration. we can use electronegativity to make predictions about Chemical bonding. Chemical Basis 3. water is cohesive and ad hesive 4. water is an excellent Solvent S. water is a good solvent For sait 6. water only disolves selected molecules 7. water regulates temp. b.water expands when Frozen 9. Water participates in chemical reactions needed for life concentration. Chapter 2.3: PH scales. - Acidic Solutions have a low pit and a high Low - Basic Scrutions have a high Ph and a low. f Bases have more OH" long than I lons + Type lenic bond Covalent bond Polar Hydrogen bond donates one or more electrons to another tronegativity difference between atoms is very large (P-1.7). The resulting oppostaly Two atoms pairs of electrons Electronegativity difference between atoms Electronegativity a hydrogen ator with a partial positive charge Hydrogen bonds form between adjacent molecules or Strength Example Strong but Strong large (0.4 to 17) An alom with a Weak partial negative charge attracts High (NIC) O-H bond Dewen afacere different parts of a large molecule BUFFer Solution - hep maintain. a constant pn by absorbing or releasing At into solution. ✓ Huarogen Plants animais Chapter 2.4: Chemnestry of life organic molecules - contains bath carbon and hydrogen in them. -organic molecules needed 4 likes processes. AAAAA • carbohydrates • Protems. • nucleic acid. Lipids a type of Chemical reaction, to synthesize a polymor, enzymes form. bonds between two monomers (reaction)→ H₂0 molecure is released ▷ Hydroloysis breaks polymers apart :/. ↓ cremical reaction. Spliting polymer by adding a H₂0 molecune Single unit T I monomer a single unit of a carbohydrate, protein, or nuclere acid. monomers Join to form paumers. (11pids don't have a monomer). polymers-many units together Dehydration Synthesis Jains monomers together Found most commonly in Food carbohydrates: - monomer: monosaccharides complex carbohydrates: Cellulose Structure -polymer: polysaccharide (sugar) → complex carbohydrates - Functions: Quick energy - Examples: Glucose, Fructose Starch-energy glycogen-energy. Denatured-proteins lose Shape (when you Cook Food) polysaccrides •Proteins: Monomers: amino acid paymers: polypeptide Functions: create structure of cells, produce muscle contractions, work as enzymes. NOT GOOD SOURCE OF ENERGY * Ex. Cologen, enzymes proteins: primary and secondary structure/ primary amino acid sequence of a polypetide Secondary Localized areas of calls, sheets, and loops within pay peptides. Nucleic acids: Monomer- nucleaticles polymer- nucleic acid not a dipepticle Functions- Store and transmit genetic info Example- DNA and RNA A-T A-U C-G C-G Chapter 3: cells early cell theory: I -All organisms are made of one or more cells -Fundamental unit of life All cells come from pre-existing cells. and ture Cells vary in size: thousands of bacteria cells would kit inside one human cell cells shore common Features: -genetic material, ribosomes, cytopiasm, and a cell membrane why are cells so small? Eukariotes - Large (more complex) -includes nucieus Smaller cells have more surface area, which allows the cell to quickly exchange materials with its surroundings prokaryotes - oldest Form of like ·Small, simple in Lack nucleus cells ✓ Procaryotic Archea Bacteria Lipid S big molecules. not bracen dawn Anatomy of bacterial cells: -Bacteria are prokaryotic - Lack memorane-banded organelles ribosomes and DNG are free in cytoplasm monomor: none modern cell theory: -all cells have some basic chemical -all cens use energy. -all cells contain DNA that is duplicated and passed down. polymer: none Functions: Long term storage, barrier Examples: Trigncerides, waxes, Steroids/ hormones Eukaryotic 3 Domains -Bacteria - Archea -Eukarya Anatomy of an animal ce\\: -many different. membrane-banded. organelles plant cells: eukaryotic, mostly the same organelles as animal cells. ▷ ▷ D Bacterial cell contain DNA, cell wall, ribosomes, and a cell membrane cell membrane: -> made up from organeles involved in protein production, Localization, cellular digestion, energy related arganelles, cytoskeleton, structure outsicte. cells D IF a morcule is too big, a protein can help move things through (transport protem) 1 cell membranes contain D Functions: -Forms barrier between cell and outside world. - maintains homeostasis - regulates passage of substances selectively permeable: allowing some things. into a cell and not others. oproteins • carbohydrates osteroids (cholesterol) ophospholipids proteins: Synthesized on ribosomes • proteins are secreted (moved) • proteins enter the rough ER • They move from rough ER to the golgi • Selected proteins leave the cells amphipathic - Polar 3 non- polar regions in the same molecules protein production: organelles that are involved in protein production -nacieus → controis protein production, contains DNA synthesizes ribosomes - nucleolus - Ribosomes Phospholipid: a morocule OF glycero, a phosphate group, and 2 Fatty acids Hydrophilic head! polar bords attracted to water hydrophobic tails, nonpolar bands. which repel water 1-60 2Na: cames protein recipe through nuclear Pores vacuoles: regulate size and water balance peroxisome - aid in digestion SGGGGGG Chapter 4: The energy of life. Kenetic Energy = energy of motion / movement. potential Energy F Stored energy that is available to do work -Energy has to be converted from one form to another First law of thermodynamic. -energy is never created or destroyed. Heat Energy (disordered energy) cannot be used or transferett back after HS 1034. - cells constantly use energy to carry out lifes process second law of thermodynamic - always leasing energy no what matter Oxidation-reaction endergonic-reaction that forms bonds to build molecules require energy input Exerganic-reactions that break bonds to release energy stored in the band. LEO GER Oxidation electrons ↓ loss of electrons from an atom or molecule, releasing energy. 105+ -cells are unable to use. Chemical energy Reduction Electrons malocule Gain Reduction-reactions / ↓ - metabolism includes all Chemical reactions gain of electrons by an atom molocure, which require energy. Main source of energy for a cell is ATP Phosphorylation - ATP → ADP → then adding a phosphate group onto a an enzyme-prtoan that acts as a cardyst (speeds up Chemical reaction without being. consumed Cellular Respiration. Glycoy Sis 2 NADH & Glucose GNADH 2 FADH₂ 602 diagram 2 pyrovate 2 NADH Transition Step → 2 co₂ ↓ 2 Acetyl COA ↓ Krebs cycle →2 ATP Chain 4 CO2 2 ATP Electron Transport → 34 ATP → 6 H ₂0 Total of 34 From electron Transport chain PIUS 4 ATP From glycay sis and krebs cycle = 38 ATP minus 2 ATP For NADH electron transportain energy = 36 TOTAL ATP (2) Glycolysis) Glucose →→2 Purvate, 2 NADH, 2 ATP Transition) 2 NADH, 2(0₂← 2 Puvurate Krebs) 2 Acetyl Co A → 6 NADH, 2 FADH, 4 C0₂, 2 ATP. (ETC) All NADH and FADH → 34 ATP, and 6 water 3