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the three parts that make up the hip bone. The three parts that make up the hip bone 00 Chapter 7: Skeletal System 7.1 Introduction 1) List the living tissues in bone. Bone tissue cartilage, dease connective tists tissue, blood, and her vous tissue are the living tissues in bone. 2) What are the functions of the skeletal system? Support and protection of softer tissues, points of attatchment for muscles, housing blood-producing cells, and storage of inorganic salts. 7.2 Bone Structure! 3) List and describe the four ways bones are classified by shape. Provide examples of each MID ● Bones are classified by their shape. They can be long bones, like forearms, which have longitudinal axes and expanded ends, short bones, such as the patella, which have roughly equal lengths and width's, flate bones, which are platelike with broad surfaces such as ribs, or irregular bones, such as vertebrat and some facial bones, which come in a variety of shapes and sizes 4) List and define the parts of a long bone. Each end of a long bone has an expanded portion called an epiphysis, forming a joint with this contains a layer of hyaline cartibge, called articular, cartilage. The shaft of the bone, between the epiphyses, is called the diaphysis. The bone is completely dense connective tissue called the periosteum, except for the articular cartilage. Define hematopoiesis. Where does it begin? Where in the infant? Adut? Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation. it begins in the yolk sac outside of the human embryo. Later in development, hematopoiesis occurs in the liver and spleen, and still later it happens in bone marrow. In infants, red marrow (the type that produces blood cells) is found in the cavities of most bones. In adults, red marrow is found in spongy bone of the skull, ribs, breastbone, collarbones, backbones, and hip bones. difference red and yellow Red marrow makes red blood cells, white blood cells, and blood platelets, while yellow marrow does not produce blood cells. (27) Describe a bone marrow transplant. During a bone marrow transplant, a and syringe take normal red marrow cells needle from a donor (or stem cells). Then the cells are injected into a recipient's blood. If the transplant goes successfully, the recipient gains new, healthy marrow and a bloodstream of healthy cells too. are 28 What in bone? the major inorganic salts stored 26) what is marrow? the The major inorganic salts stored in bone are mostly calcium selts in the form of calcium. phosphate. 29) What other salts and heavy metals can be Bones can store magnesium, sodium, potassium, and carbonate ions. They can also store metals sinh 1 ( 3) Describe the infantile skull with respect to fontanels. The infantile skut is not fully developed, and there are Abrous membranes Connecting each cranial bone. The membranous areas are known as fontanels (soft spots). @ Why is the infantile skull "soft"? The infantile skull is soft because it makes it easier to pass through the birth canal D)List the remaining characteristics of the infantile skull. Infants have small faces with big eyes and prominent foreheads, small jaws and hasal cavities, incomplete sinuses, and two bones. They have thin, Somewhat flexible bones which resist fracture better than adults. frontal 7.7 Vertebral Column A 44) Describe the vertebral column. List its main functions. The vertebral column is between the skull and the pelvis. It is composed of many vertebrae, which are separated by fibrocartilage masses known. as invertebral discs. The vertebrae are also connected by ligaments. The functions of the vertebral column are to support the body's head and trunk, and to protect the spinal cord 145) List and briefly describe all terms associated with a typical vertebra. • A typical vertebra has a thick, drum-shaped body forming the Short stalks known from the body. Two anterior portion of the bone. as pediclles project Postheriorly plates known as Taminge arise from the pedicles and fuse to become as lead, radium, and strontium. 30) How is calcium released from bone it is available for physiologic processes? Parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone tissue, releasing the eator calcium. 3) Why is maintaining sufficient blood calcium # level so important? It he is important for muscle contraction, functioning of nerve cells, blood clothing, and many other processes. 7.5 Skeletal Organization 3) List and define the two major divisions of the skeleton. The axial skeleton is the bong and cartilaginous parts that support and protect the organs the head, neck, and trunk, and the appendicular skeleton is the bones of the upper and lower limbs of and bones of that anchor them to the axial skeleton. 33) List and briefly describe the bones found in the axial skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of the skull (the cranium and facial bones), the hypid bone (between the lower jaw and larynx), the vertebral column (vertebrae, intervertebral discs, the sacrum, and coccyx), and the thoracic cage (ribs and sternum). 34) List and briefly describe the bones in the appendicular skeleton The appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle (shoulder blade and collarbone), upper limbs Thumering radius, and ulna), pelvic girdle (hips and pelvis), and lower: spinous process. The pedicles, laminae, and spinous process all together form a vertebral arch, around a vertebral foramen. Between the pedicles and laminae are transverse processes, projecting laterally and posteriorly from the vertebra. Superior and inferior articular the vertebra processes, which help articulate with vertebrae above and below it. The lower surfaces of the vertebra are covered in notches which allign with adjacent vertebrae to help form openings known as intervertebral foramina, which form passageways for spinal nerves. 146) How many cervical vertebrae are there? Where are they located? There are seven cervical vertebrae. They are located in the neck. a) What differentiates the cervical vertebrae from the other kinds? Only cervical vertebrae have transverse foramina, which are passageways for blood going to and from the brain. The second through sixth cervical vertebrae are uniquely forked to provide b)List and describe the two significant cervical vertebrae The two significant cervical vertebrae are the atlas and the axis. The atlas is the first cervical vertebra, it supports the head. It has no body or spinous processes, and it contains two facets that articulate with the occipital condyles. The axis (the second cervical vertebra) has a toothlike dens on its body. The atlas pivots around the dens. many thoracic vertebrae are there? There are twelve thoracic vertebrae. 47) How 5) Explain how a bone's shape makes its functions. Bones are shaped so that they can function: Bony processes provide places for tendons and ligaments. to attatoh. Grooves and openings provide passages for nerves and blood vessels. A depression of one bone can articulate with another. 6) Where is compact bone found? What is it also called? Describe its structure. Compact bone is found in the walls of the diaphysis. It is also called cortical bone it has a continuous extracellular matrix with no gaps. 7) Where is spongy bone found? What is it also called? Describe it's structure. Spongy bone is found in the epiphyses. It is also called cancellous bone: Spongy bone has branching, bony plates called trabeculde with irregular connecting spaces between them. 8) What is the medullary cavity? H The ly medullary cavity is a hollow chamber forthed by compact bone in the diaphysis of a long bone. a) How do the endosteum and marrow relate to this cavity? A layer of cells called the endosteum lines the cavity, and marrow fills it. 10) Briefly review the microscopic structure of a Haversian & bone system. Include terms such as osteocytes, lacunae, lamelle, central canals, canaliculi, osteon. Osteocytes (bone cells) occupy small chambers called lacunae. Lacurte are found within the matrix of lamellae, which form concentric circles around limbos (femur, tibya, fibula, patella, and tarsals and metatarsals 7.6 Skull 35) How many bones are found in the human skull? There are twenty-two bones in the human skull 36) Define Suture. A suture is a joint that is not movable. 3) What is the cranium? Name and describe the cavity that can be found in some cranial bones. The cranium is a "brain case" enclosing the brain and protecting it from the outside world. Some bones in the cranium have cavities called paranasal sinuses. Paranasal sinuses are connected to the nasal cavity by passageways, and they are lined COUTE a List and briefly describe the bones of the cranium. Include any additional features associated with them. The bones of the cranium include: •The frontal bone. The frontal bone is located in the anterior part of the skull above the eyes. It has a supraorbital foramen, which nerves and blood vessels pass through. There are also two frontal sinuses within the bone, sinuses above each eye! The parietal bones. There are two parietal bones, one on each side of the skull, directly at the midline along the sagittal suture, and. they join with the frontal bone coronal suture. along the The occipital bone forms the back of the skull and the base of the skull. It joins the parietal D a) How do they differ from cervical vertebrae? Thoracic vertebrae are larger than cervical vertebrae, and they have long, pointed, downward- sloping spinous processes. They also bear more weight than cervical vertebrae. 48) How many lumbar vertebrae are there? Where are they They a what function do the lumbar vertebrae Serve? lare There are five lumbar vertebrae. located in the small of the back! The Tumbar vertebrae are made to support more weight; they have larger and stronger bodies to achieve this (49) What is the sacrum? List and describe all features of the sacrum. The sacrum is a structure made up of five fused vertebrae. It forms the base of the vertebral column. The spinous processes of the fused vertebrae form a ridge of tubercles. To the sides of these tubercles are rows of openings: called posterior and sacral, foramina. These openings allow nerves and blood vessels to pass through The vertebral foramina of the fused Sacral vertebrae form the sacral canal, continu ing through the sacrum to an opening known as the sacral hiatus. There are four pairs of anterior sacral foramina, which also provide passageways for blood vessels and nerves. 50) What is the coccyx bone? The coccux bone is the lowest part of the vertebral column. It is composed of four fused vertebrae. The coccyx is also known as the tailbone. 7.8 Thoracic Cage What bones are included in the thoracic cage? What is their function? The bones of the thoracic cage, are the ribs, thoracic vertebrage, sternum, and costal cartilages, which attatch the ribs to the sternum. Their function is to support bones in the upper limbs and pectoral girdle, protect viscera in the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities, and helping with breathing. so) How many ribs does a typical person have? Differentiate between true and false ribs. A typical person has or the first seven sternum directly by twenty-four ribs. True ribs, pairs of ribs, join to the their costal cartilages. The other five pairs of ribs, false ribs, do not reach the sternum directly cartilages. Instead, cartilages of the of folse ribs join with the with their costal upper three pairs cartilages of the seventh rib. @What are the last two or three ribs called? Why? The last two or three rib pairs are called floating ribs, because they have no cartilaginous attatchments to the sacrum. 58)List and describe the features of ribs. A rib usually has a long shaft that curves, around the chest and points downward. It has a head, where it articulates with the facets on the bodys of its vertebra and the next higher vertebra. tubercle near the rib's head articulates with the transverse process of the vertebra 59) What is the sternum? Where is it located? The stemum, also known as the breastbone, is the central canals. Osteocutes exchange material with nearby cells when cellular processes pass through canaliculi. The cyllindrical unit of compact bone is called an osteon. "1) What are performing canals (Volkmann's canals)? Performing canals are transverse canals that connect central canals together (12) Do spongy bones have a Haversian system? Spongy bone is made up of osteocytes and extracellular matrix. However, spongy bone cells do not aggregate around central canals. Spongy bone cells lie in trabeculae and get nutrients from materials diffusing into canaliculi. (No.) 7.3 Bone development and Growth! (13) When do bones begin to form? What is the process. called? Bones start to form during the first few weeks of prenatal development, and continue to grow and develop into early adulthood. The formation of bone Growth plates-epida epiphyseal is known as ossification. (osteogenesis). 14) Bones form by replacing existing connective tissue in which two ways. Dintramembranous bones originate between layers of Sheetlike connective tissue. 2) Endochondral bones start as masses of hyaline cartati cartilage that are later replaced by bone tissue.. 15) Define osteoblast, ostrocyte, and osteoclast. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells, osteocytes are (fully formed bone cells, and osteoclasts are bone-reabsorbing cells. Osteogenic cells are progenitor cells. located along the midline in the anterior cage. a)List the three parts of the sternum. The three parts of the sternum are the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. 7.9 Pectoral Girdle (62) List the four parts of the pectoral girdle. The four parts of the pectoral girdle are two clavicles and two scapulae. 63) What is the function of the pectoral girdle? The pectoral girdle functions in supporting upper limbs and providing attatchment for muscles that move them. and action 64) Describe the structure of the clavicles. The clavicles (collarbones) are long, slender and s-shaped. They are found at the base of the neck. They help to hold the shoulders in place by bracing the scapulce. The clavicles also provide attatchiments for muscles. (65) What are the scapulae? Where are they located? The scapulae are the shoulder blades. They are broad and nearly triangular and located on both sides of the upper back. 66) List and describe the features of the scapulae. A scapula has a spine, which divides it into two unequal portions. The spine leads into an acromian process forming the tip of the shoulder. The acromion process articulates with the clavicle, and it also provides muscle attatchments for upper limb and are the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. The ilium is the largest and uppermost part of the hip bone. The ilium forms the hip's prominence, the margin of which is called the iliac crest. The ilium joins the sacrum posteriorly at the sacroiliac joint! Anteriorly, the known as provides attatchments The ischium forms muscles. anterior superion iliac spine for ligaments and the lowest portion of the hip bone. It is L-shapes and has an angle, called the ischial tuberosity, which points posteriorly, and downward. The ischial tuberosity supports the body's weight in the sitting position, and provides muscle and ligament attachments. Above the ischial tuberosity a sharp projection known as the ischial spine. The pubis makes up the anterior portion of the hip bone. The two pubic boines join at the midline and form a joint called the pubic symphysis. The angle formed below the pubic Symphesis is the pubic S 73) What is the largest foramen in the body? Where is it located? The largest foramen in the body is the obturator foramen. It is located between the bodies of the pubis and ischium on either side. (20) Summarize the differences between male/ female pelvises. The female pelvic cavity is wider. The dine distance between female ischial spines and ischial tuberosities are greater than males! 7.12 Lower Limb 0 75) List and describe the parts of each bone of the lower limb. •Femur. The femur is the thigh bone, it extends from hip to knee. It has a large rounded head at its proximal end that articulates with the hip. On the head, a pit known as the fovea capitis provides an attatchment for a ligament. Below the head lies the neck, along with two processes a greater and lesser trochanter At the femur's distal end, two rounded processes, lateral and medial condyles, articulate with the The patella also articulates with the femur, in a tenden Tibia. The tibia, also called the shin bone. is the larger of the two lower leg bones. Its proximal end has two condyles, a medial condyle and a lateral condule. These conclules articulate with the femur. Below the condyles lies a process called the tibial tuberosity. It provides attaṭchment for the patellar ligament, a continuation of the patellar tendon. At the tibia's distal end, it forms a prominence on the inner ankle called the medial malleolus, which is an attatchment for ligaments. On the lateral side is depression that articulates with the fibula. -Fibula. The fibula is the smaller of the two lower lea bones. It is found laterally to the tibia and it is long and slender. It has a proximal head and a distal lateral malleolus, which articulates with the ankle and portrudes out the lateral side. -Foot. The foot is made up of the ankle, the instep, and the toes. The ankle, also known as tarsus, is made of seven tarsal bones. One tarsal bone, the talus, is able to move freely where it joins the tibia and fibula. The of the Earsal bones is the calcaneus, largest or heel bone. The instep, or metatarsis, is composed of five metatarsal bones that articulate with the barsals. They are numbered 16) What bones are intramembranous bones? How do these develop? Intermembranous bones are flat bones in the skull. future bones. They develop in the fetus from membranelike layers of unspecialized connective tissue? at the sites connective tissue. at the in +7) What bones are endrochandal bones? How do these develop? Be sure to include description of the primary assification center, the secondary ossification center, and the epiphyseal plate. Endochondral bones are most bones in the skeleton (besides intermembranous bones). They develop in the fetus from masses of hyaline cartilage that are shaped like bony structures. In the primary ossification center, the cartilage starts to break down and be replaced by spongy bone, and a periosteum compact f forms. In the secondary ossification centers appearing bone in epiphyses, more spongy bone is formed, and a band of cartilage known as an epiphyseal plate remains between the two ossification conters! 18) When is ossification complete? Ossification is complete when ossification centers of the diaphysis and epiphyses meet, and the epiphyseal plates ossify. 1A) Describe the homeostasis of bone tissue. Throughout human life, osteoclasts reabsorb bone matrix and osteoblasts replace it. This is a continuous process. 20) Describe how the following factors contribute to bone health: a) Vitamin D-Vitamin D is needed to properly. absorb calcium. Without calcium, bones soften and deform! TEPHEILIT LEER paorty alesar T O bones along the lambdoid suture. It has a large opening, called the foramen magnum, which is where nerve fibers of the brain enter the vertebral canal. Rounded processes known as occipital condules articulate with the first vertebra of the vertebral column. •The temporal bones. There is one temporal bone on each side of the skull, and each temporal bone joins the parietal bone at the squamous suture. Temporal bones make up part of each side of the skull, and the base of the skull. The temporal bones contain exterior openings called external acoustic meatuses, or ear holes. They also have depressions called mandibular fossale, which articulate with condyles of the mandible. There are two projections located below the acoustic meatus: the mastoid process and a styloid process. The sphenoid bone. The sphenoid bone is located in between a few other anterior cranial bones. It helps form part of the base of the skull, and floors and sides of the orbitals. The sphenoid contains an indent called the sella turcica, which is where the pituitary aland is located. It also contains two sphenoidal Sinuses. The ethmoid bone. The ethmoid bone lies in front of the sphenoid bone. It is made up of two masses (one on each side of the nasal cavity. These masses are joined by thin cribriform plates, which form the roof of the nasal cavity? 38) Describe the facial skeleton. The facial skeleton is composed of 13 immovable bones and a movable lower jawbone. It is responsible for forming the basic shape of the face, and for providing attatchments for facial muscles. a List and briefly describe the bones of the facial skeleton. Include any additional features chest muscles. The coracoid process of the Scapula provides muscle attatchments as well, and cavity known as the glenoid cavity articulates" Curves anteriorly and inferiorly, to the clavicle. A with the head of the humerus. 7.10 Upper Limb 6) List and describe the parts of the humerus. At the upper end of the humerus is its heads which articulates with the shoulder blade (scapula). There are two processes just below the head- the greater tubercle (lateral side) and a lesser tubercle, which provide attatchments for muscles that move the shoulder. Between the two tubercles lies an intertubercular sulcus (groove). Along the lower margin of the head humerus, separating the head from of the the tubercles. is the anatomical neck. Below the tubercles lies. the surgical neck (a common place for fractures). The v-shaped area in the middle of the 02 bony shaft is the deltoid tuberosity which attatchment for the deltoid muscle. At the lower end of the bone are two the capitulum Carticulating with the radius) the trochea (articulating with the ulna). Above these and medially, al condyles are opicondyles, providing condyles; laterally, attatchments to the muscles and ligaments of the elbow. Between the epicondyles are the coronoid fossa (anterion), and -the olecranon fossa. (posterior) 68) Where is the radius located? What is unique. about it? List and describe key parts. The radius is located on the thumb side of the forearm. Its head is thick and disk-shaped, and allows it to rotate. The radius crosses over the ulna when the hand is turned. It's radial tubero- sity provides attatchments for muscles for bending at the elbow. At the distal end, the styloid process provides attatchments for ligaments in the wrist. 353EU LY b) Growth Hormone - The growth hormone stimulates the division of Cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates. c) Sex Hormones-Sex hormones stimulate the Ossification of epiphestal plates. d) Physical Ecar Exercise - Physical Exercise puts stress on muscles and bones, and stimulates bone tissue to strengthen. 2) How is the fracture of a bone healed? Blood first escapells from ruptured vessels, forming a hematoma. Spongy bone then forms in regions close to newly-developing blood vessels and fibrocartilage forms slightly further anBay A hard (bony) callus replaces the fibrocartilage. After that, osteoclasts remove excess bony tissue, and the bone is healed. ● 7.4 Bone Function (22) What bones function to primarily support? The bones of the lower limbs, pelvis, and backbone are for support. 23) What bones function primarily to protect viscera? Bones of the rib cage, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle help to protect viscera (soft internal organs). 24) How do bones function with muscles to produce movement? Bones act as levers and interact with muscles, causing movement. Z 1-5, starting from the medial side. The of the metatarsals form the ball of the The toes have three phalanges each, apart from the great toe, which has two. The proximal phalanges articulate with the metatarsals. heads foot. 4 45 45 Heide The bones of the facial skeleton include: -The maxillae. The maxillae are bones that form the upper jaw. Parts of them make up the anterior roof of the mouth, the floors of the orbits, and parts of the nasal cavity. Inside the maxillary are large Sinuses called maxillary sinuses! -The palatine bones. These bones are located hehind the maxillae. They are L-shaped, and form the floor and Pateral walls of the nasal cavity. -The zugomatic bones. The zugomatic bones, or cheekbones, form the prominence of the cheeks and lateral walls and floors of the Orbits. The temporal process of the zygomatic bone joins with a zuppmatic process of a temporal bone to formo a zudomatic arch. -The lacrimal bones: Lacrimal bones are thin and scalelike and located between the ethmoid bone and the maxilla. -The nasal bones. The nasal bones are thin, rectangular bones that fuse at the midline and form the bridge of the nose. -The vomer. The vomer is thin, and flat, and located along the midline within the nasal cavity. It joins the ethmoid bone, forming the nasal septum. -The inferior nasal conchae. These bones are fragile and scroll shaped, and they attatch to the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. Their job is to support mucous membranes in the nasal cavity -The mandible. The mandible, or lower jawbone, is horizontal and shaped like a horseshoe. It is divided into two portions: the posterior mandibular condyle, and the anterior coronoid process. The aveolar arch contains the hollow sockets that bear the lower arch.