Respiratory System Reviewer Notes

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up become dome shaped. (Top to bottom space decrease) → Ribeage move more down word 8 Inward 1 Myoglobin ean binds 1 molecules of 0₂. In structure of Haemoglobin, en in centre. Iron (Fe (1)) is present. @Respiratory Pigments in Invertebrate: anine Haemocyanin Haemo erythrine Mollusca Blue colour (Cu) Marine, animals + Violet-Pmk colour Annelids Green Colour. [→ Colour Full 19. oxygenated] [→ 44 deoxygenated So coloudess] Transport of Oxygen in blood: Ⓒ About 97% Os is carried by RBC ⇒ Oxyhemoglobin PO₂ in Ling = 100mm About → dissolved O₂ in plasma. 3% tis Oz Max. Carrying capacity of Arterial blood = 20ml /100ml bleed Cat 100 mm ➜ O Amount of Haemoglobin is 15 gm / 100 ml of blood Combine 1.34 ml of O₂.. 20ml 15gm © 19mm Haemoglobin Can blood blood 100 ml 100 ml 100ml 100 ml Arterial blood Contain = 100 ml Venous blood Contain = Thus out of 100 ml blood 44 Combine Contain During Excercise, Venous blood = out of 100 ml blood Arterial blood (plasma) = = Thus Out of 100ml blood plasma Contain = = 5ml O₂ released to tissue. of 0₂. Haemoglobin 100 ml Venous blood Contain = 95 mm Hg 19.4 ml O₂. (974. sat.) 14.4ml 0₂ ( 40mm Hg) (75% saf) 4.4 ml O₂ release to tissue (20% sat.) 18 mm Ho mm 0.29 ml 0₂ (95 m) 0.3ml Or (10 0.12 ml dissolved. O₂. 40 ma Hg) Hg PO₂ in tissue 40 mm Hg. Disease Mcds: Acute Smvertis symptom last (2-8 week) About 15% of TB Patient may develop the disesse in an organ mm other than Lungs, Such 28 Lymph node 7 GI tract, bones & Joints. About 80% case of otitis media clear up within 3-4 days without treatment. Transport dioxide: of Carbon 70% CO₂ is carried in blood = as bicarbonate ions 23% CO₂ is Carried in blood = as Carboxy haemoglob ® 7% CO₂ is carried in bloed = dissolved form in plasma. There are over 30 different cause A Pneumonia, 0.17 ml Of is transporte by to tissue Per cycle. Only about 10% dissolved state. of people infected with M. tuberculosis ever develop TB cusesse Osmoregulation in Animals: Fresh Water Animals "Hypertonic" + These Animals are their outer environment. to Problems: more water can enter into the body so "swelling" occurs. @ Solute Can be lost from Animals body-(Salt deficency) Adaptation : Urine ( Excrete dilute Salt obtained from the good they eat. (2 Ⓒ Gills have Special Salt absor Cells Called sorbing " Ionocyte Thermoregulation Poikilotherm Cold blooded Animals + which does not maintain their body temp- & tends to fluctuate with environment + Example: Invertebrates 3 Fish & Amphibian Reptiles + i-e (High solute conc.) (Low water potential) Ectothems → Which depend on Heat derived from environment rather than metabolir heat to raise their body temp. @Fish @Reptiles Example Invertebrates (mest) Amphibiens moe Marine Water Animals & Terrestral + (Have Beth asmeconfermer & Osmorgulator) + These Animals are "Hypotonic" to their outer - Environment (new solute com) Problems: Loss of water Ⓒ Excess of salt in the body. due to drinking of sea water Adaptation : (classification based on Heat Production) @ Endotherms. water and Take more excrete Cone. Unine. 2 Excess Salt Like Nat, cl, K" are removed across gills epithelium Divalent Ions like Myt, cat are removed by Kidney. regulation) @ Same fish also have salt secreting gland in the wall of rectum Called "Rectal gland"_ classification based on Heat 2 Homeotherms, Warm blooded Animals which maintain that their Internal body temp. at Constant level- Example: Birds 2 Mammals which generate their own body heat through heat Production by High metabolic rate. Example @Birds @Mammals Some Fishes Greak white shark Homeostasiz Flying Insects Polar Bear. -High water pot.) → Problems: Dehydration Ch#15 + Exposed mast time to air & temp.. Adaptation Presence of chitinous exoskeleton in Arthropod Presence of dead er Keratinized Skin in vertebrates adaption to reduce water loss_ are In Desert Kangoo rat have "Anhydre biasis * Example & Marine water Animal Osmo confermor: (Isotonic) Cartilaginous Jish such as sharks, rays, and skates. Some cyclostomes like (Myxine (Hag Fish)-(Jawless) Osmoregulator: Bony Fish (Teleosts) Excretory Function of Nephon: @ Ultrafiltration : Diameter of efferent arteriole is half as - compared to afferent autenole 2 About 20% glomerular Filtrate To filtered into * Bowman's Capsule". 3 Over 80% glomerul as. filtrate is reabsorbed in "Proximal convoluted tubule". Ultrafiltration produced → 125 ml of glomerular permint +180 litre of glomerular per day Selective reabsorption, 124 ml is absorbed out of 125 ml/mint of glomerular Filtrate. 178.56 Litre in absorbed @ Urinary bladder: out of 180 litre/day- Ⓒ Tubular Secretioni In this process; Htions, Ktions & organit ions are put in to the Urine. Many drugs are eliminated by Human Excretory system: @Kidney +12cm : 6cm wide 4cm Thick = 150g Kidney present b/w Last thoracic Vertebrae & Third Lumber Vertebra Upper part of Kidney are protected by 11th and 12th Weibs. +Weight 3 Renal artery & Nerve enter the Kidney through ""Hilus" Renal vein Kidney through "Hilves" & Ureter leave the 16Ⓒ+ Rate of blood How #rough both Kidney is approximately 1.2 Litre per mimnt. Ureter → 28 cm Long. Kidney recives about 20% 43 Phoximal Convoluted blood coming from the Heart each it beat - Urmary bladder can store of Unne. 0.5- 1 litre The act of emptying the bladder "Mietunition." 1/6 called Urethra: In female In Male → 2-3 cm long. - 20 em lỏng, tubular Secretion. Kidney stone, →Excretory Product : Ammenia: Structure Nephrion 1 g_Ammonia requires a 500ml. Ambnotelic & Fish, Protozoan, Sponges, Colentrates, Echinoderm Urea : + 1 Lac time less toxic than Ammoni a + -18 Urea requires 50ml H₂0 Renal Corpuscle in the initial filtering Compenent of Nephron. the The cells of Bewman's capsule in the Kidney that wrap around Capillanes of the glomerulus are called "Padocyte" (5mm) stone under 0.5em Can Spontaneously pass from kidney 2 Mast stone greater than 1em cannot pass from Kidney- Chemical nature & stone → Calcium cxalate/phosphate = 70% Infectious stone (struvite) = 15-20% → Uric acid 5-10% → Amino acid (cystene) = 1-3% gradients in the Uric Acid: Less toxic At ppt from solution. → Purme base. > 1g Uric acid requires = 1ml H₂O : Teneshal invertebrate & egg-laying Vorkbyde tubules is the Langest Part of Nephron, @ Loop of Henle is the the whole system, as it allow the Kidneys to Fitter out salt t maintain correct balance of water in bedy- +Types of Nephroni 70-80% nephoon in human Kidney are a Cortical Nephron " Under normal condition of water availability the Cortical nephron deals with the control of blood volume, 3 20-30% nephion in Kidney are "Juxtamedully nephron"- 4) Juxtramedullary neptiven are responsible for development of esmetic "Kenal me dalla" which are used to concentrate Unne- in When water is short supply increased water retention occur through "Juxtamedullary nephron Muscle and T Skeletal muscle @katected Cylindrical shape Ⓒ Multinucleated Longest muscles.. @striated muscles CHaving regular stripes) Voluntry control. Fatigued muscles, Bone Bene @Mature cells "astrocytes" Matrix Contain "Type I collagen" Ⓒ strengthen by Inorganic Salt and cartilage: di Carblage D @Mature cells a are Cells 6 Matrix Bones Osteoblast @Bone forming cell contain Collagen" @ No Inorganic salt. No blood Circulation Constantly reshaped @ Not reshaped. 70% Matrix Cabove 65%) compesed of Chondrocyte" @striated muscle CHave Irregular stripe) @non-striated Cunstripe) Involuntry control @ Involuntry control. Non-fatigued. Non-Fatigued "Type I Bone Composition: Bene cells are embedded in firm calcified matrix- @ 30% Matrix (above 35%) organic materials. 2 Cardiac muscle. chain of cells form Single nucleus Osteocyte mature are Inorganic salt. Cchiefly of "Hydroxyapatite a form calcium phosphate Cneedle like crystal) Osteoclast Osteoblast Mononucle ate cells Osteoblast responsible for the to generate mineralization of matrix. Ⓒasteocyte stop mineralized Matrix, 2 Cartilaginous Tents : cartilaginous Jomts are Connected 35%) (chiefly on collagen fiber qe fibrocartilage or Hyaline exstilage glycoprofen) No Jomt cavity present. Allow Slight movement. @eg: cartilaginous Joints are Formed blw; Vertebrae u → + b/w Wrist % Smeeth museles, @ spindle shape, Single nucleus. Ch# 16 Support Movemen Jomts and its types: CJoints of articulation) Fibrous Joints : Osteocyte" are responsible for maintenance of bone and calcium- Osteocyte" ako regulate the bone's response to stress & mechanical load. + Thin layer of fibrous commective → No Joint eavity present. Immovable Joints tresue @g: Fibrous Joints are formed bla Bone of skull & illiae of le Peluc Blw Sacrum + Blio bene of Pelvic girdle- remove bone mineralized matrix @ Hing Joints : & breaking up the organte bine. Bene Resorting Synovial Jointe: Cell. Ⓒ Large, Mulinucleat+Joint Cavity present (synovial) + Freely movable Jaints. + Classified 2-major groups: Osteoclast ankle bone. → In Hing Joints & cylindrical Protection of one bone fit into trough shaped surface on another +(2-D) movement (Deer-like) + Hing Joints are capable of beasing Heavy Load. Example: elbow & Knee Joints. 3"Osteoclast" are equipped with phagocytic-Ball & Socket Joints: Like mechanism similar to Macrophage. + most freely movable Jonts (3-D) movement. Example Shoulder & Hip Jonts. Main division of Skull Total = 28 bones →Cranium = 8-bones - Ear 6-bones 14-bones + Face Skull (Total = 28-bones) (2) Cranium : (Total = 8-bone) 4- unpaired bone 2- Paired bone. Facial bone : (Total = 14 bone) → 2- unpaired benes 6- Paired bones Ear bone : C Total = 6-bone) +30-Paired bones Skeletal muscle Human Skeleton - Endoplasmine detikulum @Neck & Trunk Total = 52 bone in L cell membrane → cytoplasm units → Hyoid = 1-bone + sternum = 1- bone (chest bone) Vertebral = 26-bone Column C33-Vertebrae) 24-bone (12-Pairs) Vertebral Column: OCTotal = 26-bones) or (33-Vertebrae) muscle bundle → Ribs O Cirvical Vertebrae = 7 Vertebrae. Check region) Thoracic 3 Lumber A Surcome re 2-Successive Vertebrae Vertebrae Sacral Structure of Skeletal muscles : (consist of composed of 1 muscle fibre. cells Vertebrae Coccyx Vertebrae = 12-Vertebrae Muscle Jibre + Cylindrical, Unbranched, Huge elongated +Diameter = 10-100μm. 5-Vertebrae = 5-Vertebrae = 4-vertebrae (small Jused) Sarcolemma. Sarcopla.com. many nuclei & Loge no. Sarcoplasmic (store Cat) of mitochond • Myofibrila: Sarcoplasm contam many contractile elements Called Mycibrils. + Diameter = 1-2 μm (Light & Dask bands due to which muscle are strated musde) 3 Sarcomere: Myefibrils consist of Small Contractile Called "Sarcomere". → In each sarcomere & Series of Light & Dark bands are - The Dark band The Light band Each in its A-band (Dark band) has a lighter strip mid section called "H-Zone"(Height which in turn is bisected by M-line (Medial) The I-band CLight band) have mid-line called "Z-line" (Zwish means b/w) Line is the region of myofibrils b/w Z-Line. Adult = 206 bene Infants 350 bene Appendicular Skeleton 1 Total = 126 benez O upper extremities (64-b Pectoral girdle =4-bones → upper limbs = 60-bones Lower extremities (62-bones Pelvic girdle = 2-bones Lower Limbs 60-bones Ribs: (Total = 24-bones/Ribs) of (12-Pairs of Ribs) 10-pans of Ribs are connected anteriorly with Stemum Thin-Jilaments : Composed of protein Actin (man Components) and "Trepomyesin" 8" Troponime" evident along length of myofibrils Myosin & Actin helps ave A-band (Anisotropic) ære I-band (Isotropic) in contraction of muscles. True Ribe: +7-paiss out of these To-pairs are directly Connected with stemum. False Ribs : 3-pais out of these 10-panes are Indirectly connected with stemum through "Castal arch". Floating Ribs & → Last 2-pairs of Ribs not attached to grant - Myofilaments Ⓒ made of Central Thick filament which are linked together by Sorrounded by Thin Filament, "Cross bridge"- Thick-filaments: 2 contain Protein "Myosin". Thick-filament has tail terminating in two-globular head. which are also called "Cross bridge" + Neuron 8 Dendrites O Sensory neuro •These neuron Carry Impulses from recepter to CNS. Mono-polar neuron Nerve Impulse: to Recives information frem recepter 8 transmit them cell body- Thin Fibers, non-myelinated Have no Schwann cells. types : Associative neuron → involved in processing of information Coming From Receptes. @Pumps! pumps perform Active transport @ Sema e Cell body: ⒸRecives signals from Dendrite & pass to Axon- Motor neuron: + Carry Impulse from CNS to effectors - Multipolar neuron + Multi-polar neuron- : eg Na-gate Channels: Transmission of Impulse requires across membrane movement of Tens (2-types) This is carried out by tiny Holes called channels Gates Gates responsible for diffusion. Voltage-regulated: Work in specific Facilitated Condition - Contan Single nucleus Many mitochondwa microtubules, neurofibrils, 8 Nissl's granules. Ccollection of group of Ribosomes, associated with rough ER Gelgi body? ee: K-gate Resting membrane potential: O More Positive outer surface Reuvon is of neuron than inner surface. + Polarized state, → Neuron at rest (non-conducting) → Resting membrane Potential=-70mV. D+Conc. of Potassium (K) Cone. A Sodium (Na) is → For every Potassium (K) Three (3) Sedium (Na) •Speed of Nerve Impulse : Ⓒ Average speed of Nerve Impulse 18 100-120 m/sec. Gate → Non-Voltage regulated; works/function all the time, Gate Larger, Thicker and myelinated neuron fiber has high speed - Axon : giber Ⓒelongated that transmit neanl Signal to next ne → Thick giber, myelinated- Covered by Schurzon cell- @ Speed of Nerve Impulse is faster (20 times) in myelinated neuron fiber to due to saltatory conduction@ Examples Ⓒ Excitatory neurotransmitter = @ Inhibitary neurotransmitter : → + 2 Active membrane Potential. More Positive inside A neuron than outside of neuron- Depolarized state. Neuron conduction Action potential = Ch 17 Nervous Coordination than outside cells. 30 times greater in the fluid inside cell. 10 times greater in the quid outside cell - than inside cella- that are actively transported Inward- are pumped out. state. + 50mV Synapse: : Electrical synapse = 0.2mm 2 chemical synapse = 20mm. Each of these synaptic vesicles has as many 10,000 molecules of a neurotransmitter substance- as KRUVCI to toti Neurotransmitters There are more than 100 Known Neurotransmitter_ that produce excitation on Past Synaptic Some neurotransmitter neuron receptors are called "Exeitatory neurotransmitter" Acetylcholine Gluamate, Serotonine 7 GABA- → Structure of Brain: Brain Fore brain (Prasen cephalon) Telencephalen olfactory bulb Cerebrum. O Spinal Cord: → 18 inch long Mid brain (Mesencephalon) Dience phalon Thalamus → Hypothalamus Amyglada + Hyppocampus Sensory nerves +3-pans A Cranial nerves CI,T, VII) or (1,2,8) →Half inch width Inner gray In Cross section, Spinal cord show; matter : ( consist of cell bedies) → outer white matter : ( consist of Nerve fiber) matter Sorround a central canal, Grey. containing Cerebrospinal Fluid CCSF). Covered with #F The o Spinal cord is Thin Pigmented membrane (Pia matter). The neural canal is lined with 3 Thick #tough membrane (Dura matter) two membrane *] (Limbic b/w The Space Pia matter & Dura matter is with Filled a Lymphatic fluid which protect the card from shock- Peripheral Nervous System be classified o Nerves Can On the basis of Function; -3- types; Motor system) Nerves → 5-pairs of Cranial nerves (10, V, VI, XL, XII) (3,5,6.1, 12) → Effect of Drugs Heroin ; Analgesic Mixed Nerves → 4-pairs of Cranial nerves (N, VII, IX, X) (4,7,9,10) Hind bram. (Rhombencephalen) 2 Cannabis ; Analgesic CMarijuana) Nicotine : stimulant, Pain Killer (Nerve) (sedative) 4 Alechal: Depressent, Anti-septic → Pons → Cerebellum → Medulla oblangata on the basis Neuron are distributed throughout the bedies in the form of Nerves & Ganglia- of Function to origin- ON The basis of Origin 2- types Spinal 3 nerves → 31-Pairs of spinal nerves Cervical = 8 paiv Thoraci = 12 pair Lumber= 5 pay O Sacral = 5 paly Coccygeal= = 1 pair ➡CSF (Cerebrospinal fluid) CSF is Produced from blood Vessels of Brain Spinal cord by a combined process of Diffusion, pinocytosis & Active transpat CSF is found in ; → blu Pia matter & Arachneid matter → Around the surface of brain & Spinal cord- In the ventricle of brain. → In the central Hollow canal 4 spinal cord- Cranial nerves 12-pairs of Cranial nerves →Special receptors: Smell Colfaction), there about 1,000 different types of recepter proteins each Sensitive to different odors. → Touch, (Tactition), • The tips of finger. touch rich in m². The finger tips & tongue may have as many as 100 per The back of hand fewer 10 per em³²- The Loss or impairment of the ability to feel anything touched Tactile Anaesthesia. called Paxes thesia is the sensation of Pricking tingling, of the skin from nerve damage- Lips receptors- → Pain (Nociception) The 3-type A Cutaneous → Skin Sematic Visceral 1 Every Square Skin age receptors- but 15 receptors 6 are or numbness that may result Pain receptors are; → Joints & bones. Body organs Centimeter of your Contains around 200 Pain only - For receptors for receptors For Pressure. → Cold Warmth- Chemical nature of Hormones Derivatives of Amino acid Tryosine Thyroxin & Tri-Todo- -thyronin (by Thyroid) gland Steroid Hormones derivatives of cholesterol o Cortisol and Aldosteron (by Adrenal cortex) • Estrogen & Progesteron (by Ovaries Testosteron (by testes) • Estregen & progesteron. (by placenta) Pituitary gland CHypophysis Cerebri) 4 → weight = 0.5g Anterior Pituitary Lobe (6-Hormones) 2 $. (TROPIC Epinephrine Non- Epinephrine. (by Adrenal medulla) 2 Growth Hormones (somatotropin) Deficency of GH Oversecretion of GH Childhood result Oversecretion of GH Adult Life results "Dwarfism. during "Gigantism? during ce Causes Acromegaly Centarging Hand, Jeet, Skull, Nose etc) →Follicle Stimulating Hormones: (Gonadotrophine releasing factor) In Female; At stimulates o maturation & ovarian Follicles. & Estrogen. → • Production In Male : At stimulates ; Development of germinal epithelium. textes. • Sperm Production in @ Anterior pituitary lobe +(Master gland) Intermediate 1sbe Postenior Pituitary lobe- (Gonatrophine) Leutenizing Hormones : (Gonadotrophine releasing Hormones) In Female: stimulates; It triggers ovulation ● Ovanan Production of Estrogen & Progesteron Causes Leuterization i-e Convert rupture follicle to a glandular strudure called "Corpus luteum"- In Males Promotes Pretenz Peptides -T3 T4 caletenine Growth Hormones (somatotropin) Prolactine Hormones (Lactogenic Hormones) Thyroid stimulating Hormones (Thyratrophin) [₂ Adrenocarticotrophic Hormone. - Follicle Armulating Hormone. • Leutenizing Hormones Hermene Growth and. Prolactine (Also Known Interstitial cell stimulating Hormones") Testosteron" production- Anti-diuretic Hermene 2 oxytocin (Peptides of 9 Amino acid each ) • Insulin, Glyeagon s Parathormone (polypeptide) Hommes, CC nical Coordina Ch 18 ADH or Vassopressin oxytocin Corpus leuteam progesteron I Glucorticoide Andre gen. Estrogen (Female Testes (Male) Thyroid gland: (Thyrotrophie) T3 Composed of two-lobes- Produced 3-Active Hormone + Tu Ⓒ Hyperthyroidism Overactivity of Thyroid "Graves' disease (Autoimmune disease - Mostly "Exopthalmia" (protrusion of) results from Grave's disease $ is classic symptoms of Hyperthyroid eye ball 2 Hypothyroidism Calcitonine Ledine Causes "Goiter" Caused by deficiency and Is due to Hypothyroidism or (Hyper TSH) Deficiency of Thyroxin (Tu) at birth result severe Hypothyroidism in "C Cretinism". "Infants" Called. In Adults, full blown Hypothyroid called "Myxedema". (mucous Swelling) syndrome is 4 "Myxedema" may result from Lack of Iodine, thyroid gland enlarges and Protrude. This Condition is Called endemic or Colloidal goiter Calcitonine → Produced by "Thyroid gland". → Controlling extracellular level Calcium Ions- Calcitonine Interbits Promotes Caleium deposition into bones. Inhibits + Calcitonine e Ca* absorption by 3 Intestine. • Cat absorption by kidney tubules. O Kions reabsorption in kidney tubules Caletonne Promotes "Osteoblast" activity (Bone forming cells). Parathormone. Produced by "Parathyroid gland" Controlling Calcium balance of the blood- + Ats release Low blood High → is triggers by the ea level- & Inhibed by Cat level- blood Parathormone Stimulates : Cat absorption in Small Intestine. Ca# reabsorption in Kidney tubules. Parathormone promotes "Osteoclast" activity- (Bone Resorbing) cell (برقرار ) © Also Innate behaviour called; → • Properties of Innate behaviour; DNA → Heritable (encoded in) → Intrinsic + Inborn behaviour Inherited behaviour Instinctive behaviour (Present in Animals vased m Isolation quem ether) Stereotypic ( P Armed in some each time by each individual) Inflexible (Not modified by development) experience. Consumate (Fully developed or →Orientation behaviour :(coordinated : Ortho Kinesiz → Kline Kinesis: → 2- types: Kinesis : (Non-directed Orientation) change in speed of movement. Change in rate A turning. Taxis (directed orientation) → movement of whole organism directly Towards (Positive) or away From (Negative) stimulus. Learning behaviour Alse Called) + Acquired behaviour 4 expressed at first me) + ·Progressive (subject to Improvement) Properties: -Hesitable + Non + Extrinsic Permutable (may change over time) Sequence Adaptable movement) → Imprinting behaviour include Learned Innate and beth Components, Behaviour' Insight Learning not trial & error axe Learning- mentally- but trial occurs ment - Male reproductive System 6 structure: Order: Testes + Vas differens → Each Testes is divided into 250-300 lobules. Epididymis efferenha J Urethra Vas 10-20 Vasa-efferentia Collect Sperm from Inside the Testes. a Each Lobules contain to One-Four tightly coiled Semineferous tubules. site of → Process of spermatogenesis taken + Carpus luteum is Place here in semine ferous tubule About Follapian tube gre Temporarily stored, and gain the ability" Epididymis. in Sperm nourished to Swim Accessory glands, Seminal Vesicles: Seminal Vesicles Provide Containing: Fructose Ascorbic • Vesiculase (coagulating enzymes) sugar acid u Prostate: encircle the Urethra Just below bladder - Prostate secrete milkly, slightly "Citrate". as acidic fluid enzyme Contam nutrients source especially Hyaluronidase Cowper's gland & Bulbourethral gland. an alkaline fluid + secrete mucus & Urethra- into the ➡Prostaglandins"; in Semen an alkaline fluid (dipled stem cell of ovary) Female reproductive system. structure: Ovaxies Follapian tube Vagina 4 Cervix + Uterus Semen: → Semen is slightly alkaline PH-7.2 7-6) + Amount of semen Propelled out of the male duct system during ejaculation about 2-5ml. + In 1 ml Semen there are b/w 20-150 million Sperm- optimum temperature for sperm about 35'e. development is → After ovulation, the ruptured Follicle is transformed into glandular structure called "Carpus a + Everyday a healthy male makes about 400 million sperm- occurs- Ch#20 Reproduction ovulation- luteum" formed at or Oviduct is the site where fertilization generally ➜Oogenesis: → Oogenesis takes place in Ovaries. (2n) Oogonium (28) Primary oocytes begins first meintic division, but become "stalled" late in Phrophase I + At puberty, Primary oocyte continue Melcsis I", ultimately produnding Poocyte First Polay body two (n) (7) o decrease the Viscosity of mucus. stimulate reverse peristalsis in uterus. Ⓒ 1 Pri- oocyte produced = 1 ovum 1 sec- oocyte Produced: 1 avum_ = 1 Pri- 10 1 oocyte Produced, Sec. From oocyte. In Human Secondry occyte arrest In "Metaphase II" and it is that cells that is ovulated Occurs ➜ A Sperm Penetration it, quickly completes Merasis I (sepemptocyte) and yielding one large Ovum. and tiny second polar body- Spermatogenesis : → Spermatogenesis take place in Semine ferous tubules → Spermatogenia are the outermest the epithelial cells which make wall of the Semineferous tubules- Spermatogonia- (mitotic disson) Menstrual in testes. Ist Menstrual cycle © Last Menstrual cycle Type A 3 release Testosterone"- A maintain Type B cell Ⓒ1 Pri. Spermatocyte produced 01 Pri- spermatocyte produced 3 = 4-sperm 2- See. Spermatocyte 1 sec. Spermatocyte Produced = 2-sperm (by meresis I) (Spemands) O Inhibin hormones "Sertoli cells". become Primary Spermatite Neck : Neck of sperm contain Pair of Centrioles. o Tail: The microtubules of centroles elongate and entire length of the tail- Mid piece : → Mid Piece Contain many "Mitochandria arranged spirally around the Axial, Hlament Hermenal Control: →At the beginings A Menstruation- germ cell Ovarian hormones are at their lowest line normal level- → FSH stimulates "Spermatogenesis by stimulating the "Sertoli Cells". to complete the development cell of testes that & sperm from Spermatides. Semineferous tabule) one of run the Sperm (small Haploid cell) Sperm has Head, neck, mid piece, tail. Head: contain nucleus having haploid set of chromosomea- → Adhering to the top of headis Acresome The Lysosomes like Acrosomes is $ Produced by Golgi apparatus Contam Hydrolytic enzyme "Hyaluronida that enable the sperm to penetrate → At the end of Secretory phase; & enter 2007 egg- Leutenizing Hormone blood level decline • Progesterone levels falls. LH stimulates "Leyding cells". found abjacent to Semmeferous tubules in testicle " - Produced by b serve to Control the spermato genesis at normal rate. cycle: Menarch (begins at puberty) "Menopause" (around So year 4 age) Gonadotropins are begminigs to Rise. (FSH levels vise) → (Estrogen level) Ovulation occurs Leuteniging Hormones causes ; 2 which take less than 5 mint. in ovary at the end of Proliferative stage (day 145 to LH also Convert ruptured Follicle a Carpus Luteurn_ →During Secretory / Postovulatory phase endometrium prepare for Implantation of an embryo. Early Cleavage & Blastocyst formation > Trophoblast Cells Couter layer of single, large flattened cells) @Trophoblast also placenta in @Trophoblast also secrete saveral factors with Immuno Suppressive effects that protect developmg O Zygot Blastocyst Hatch 1 Inner Cell mass (small cluster of 20-30) founded Cells- locded at one side- Inner cell mass becomes the Embryonic dise. which forms Fluid-filed hollow Sphere) composed ongle layer" 4 large stallened cella- Gastrulation the Embryo Proper form the Extra Embryonic membrane (Amnion, Yolk Sac, Allentois) except Chenon (Trophoblast derrivatives). Ectoderm Ectoderms will gives → Mesoderms rise to ; Eyes Inner eats organogenesis The three Primary germs layers serves from which body will organs Mesoderms Many Connective tissue- © Triplets will give rise 3 axial Body's outer most layer o Netochord (support o) & skin (skin Epidermis) o CNS and PNS. Baby's Heart - Twins $ -Identical twins Also called ; Maternal twins - and Quadruplets : Comes from Single egg foocyte by Single sperm-(ea unknown fertilized eggs split) Cell division occurs Mitotically (A-sexually) Some share Same Placenta separate amniotic and Sac- + Ⓒ as derive- Embayo (Trophoblast) o e Circulatory system. Foundation of Body bones Muscles, Kidney, Much of reproductive system. O Non-Identical Twins. ➜ Also called ; Fraternal twins • Siblings- →Placenta + Chorion form. Allontois + Waste substance store Yolk Sac + Nourishment store Amnion Protect embryo → Comes from multiple egg foocyte by different sperm- fertilized Cell division occurs Sexually- begins to display L-selectin the Have separate Placenta separate Amniotic Sac. molecules (Adhephen) Surface soon after the blastocyst take Hatching Jormation- Development Ch 21 Primitive Endoderms to; tissues Endoderms. give Vise Epithelial lining of 4 Digestive system Respiratory system. Urogenital system → Associated 4 glands. m cytoplasm + Grey Equatonal = give rise Grey Vegetal cytoplasm →Yellow cytoplasm & give rise to muscle cells. + Clear cytoplasm: Produce Larval epidermis give rise to gut Contain i For example fertilized egg of an acidian in Blastomere. O Morphogenetic determinants are present $ neural are responsible for cell differentiation- cytoplasmic components tube- to motochord Mogeneties determinants present It is known that me drifferent ➜ + ➜ - Human Embryonic development : Ist trimester Ist three months (Week 1-12) Implantation takes place in the fourth week of Pregnancy- Placenta formation also begins - Figth (5th) week of Pregnancy marks beginnings of the embryonic Period. + 4 the Baby Brain, spinal Card, Heart 3 other organs begins to form- becomes Embryo's made of three layer, Ectoderm Mesoderm Ende derm. Neural tube along Jetal closing- back Heart is Pumping blood- Basic Jacial features will begins to appears Inner ear 8 arches. Fetal body begins to take on a C-shaped Curvature. -Tiny nastrils becomes Visible- small buds will soon becomes arms & legs. Eye lense begins to form Fingers have begun to fom External parts of baby's Forming ears also are Eyes are visible. Upper Lips & mase have formed- been Trunk of body is beginings to traightens Fetus is developing Fingernails Face - 2nd Trimester Week 13-24 Foetal sex apparent Identified during ultrasound. becomes & Possibly an Uterus z Ovarieg and testes begminty to descend. Foetal ears begins stand out at the side. Head- Nerve endings from the brain connect to The ear - allowing the foetus to Hear- Head Becomes the about half of the over all size of fetus - Foetal muscle body fat is being stored under the skin • Body hair starts to appear- Fingers have developed Finger Prints that are unique to every Individuals - 3rd Trimester Week 25-36 + Fmal weight gain take place, in 3rd Trimester which is most weight gain take place throughout Pregnancy- Ferty (40) weeks into Pregnancy or 38 weeks after Conception, ► Foetus grows rapidly baby might be about during the fifth month, & internal organs Continue to mature- Foetus will be growing most rapidly gaining up to 28g Perday- J Foetus begins to move rapictly regularly and is felt by the Women- @ 18-20 inches long- @ weight 6-9 pounds (2-4 kg) - System level changes in Aging : GI-tract in general maintains into old age- Junction well its However due to Aging Ⓒaltered ➜ ( ترسیم شده) taste decreased stomach, acid. altered taste decreased blood flow to léver. 7 In mouth. decreased in Saliva occurs which affect chewing & Swallowing- altered taste, food makes less Palatable. Osteoponia & Osteoporosis both deals bene loss difference is degree of loss. with - Osteoponia: a decreased 82 lowered mineral content of bone. called osteoponia- • B/w the age of 30-40 Women start to loss bone and enter men 8 mass Condition called "Osteopona" Osteoporosis : Osteoporosis is a greater degree and involves in decrease in both bene minerals & of osteoponia decrease a bone Matrix- Sex-determination + Male; XO-type Heterogametic Ⓒ2 type gamete (Sperm) (X & nullo) + -хо-хх type ExampleGrasshopper, Pratenor bug- + Crickets -Female: XX-type. Homogenetic @ 1-type gamete @ Sex- determining structure "Sperm" Sex ratio blw male & female offspring = 1=1| 23-pair autosome 1- Pan Sex-ehsomosome Normal XX = Female Normal xy = Male Turner's Syndrome (XO) Produce = Stenle Female. Klinefter's syndrome (XXY) Produce = sterile Male Sex-related trait:→ →Sex-limited trait + @trait which is Confimed to Sex- Example: Genes for milk yield in dairy cattle affect only Cows- →XY-XX- type Example: Humman →Comparison of chromosomal determination of sex blw Drosophilla $ Human- In Man (Human) In Drosophilla. → Tatal 23 Par 4 chromes + Total 4-pair of chremeam 3-pair autosomes @ 1 - pair Sex-chromosome only one due to "Anotomical difference". e Hairy ear. Drosophilla + other mammals- Male : XY-type Beared growth in Human is limited to men- determined by "X"Y Sex-determined by chromesome system X-chromosomes-autosame • Heterogametic © 2-type gametes Female: o XX-type + Sex • Hamegametic Ⓒ1-type gamete. (X) Sex-determinings structure "Sperm"- ratio 1:1 balance- Normal XX = Female & + Normal XY = Male +XO non-distinction Produce = stenle Male XXY* non-disjunction Produce = sterile Female Control, by sex-linked or autosomal gene- Sex-Influenced brat + trait which occurs in both male z Female but more Common in ene Sex- due to Hormonal difference" b/w sexes Example Baldness is & sex- influenced trait -XX-Xxy type WZ-ZZ type) + Example: + Birds + Butter fly + Moth + Some fish. Male : XX-type (wz) Female "Inheritance" ch#22 Home gametic 1- type gamete (X) + Sex ratro = 1:1 6 XY-type • Heterogametic 2-type gamete (X = Y) Sex- determing structure egg". (C In Drosophilla; X: A ratio of 1.000 Higher produce Female". X: A ratio of 0.5 or lower Produce "Male" ABO- Blood group type is a multiple allelic trait that is encoded by a single Polymorphic gene "I" am "Chromosome 9" in In Secretor". dominant secreter gene se Present on Chromosome 19 In Bombay Phenotype, Production of "A" or "B" antigen also dependent which upon H- substance, is synthesized by another gene "H" am Chromosome 19 In Human, genes for Sickle cell anemia, "Leakemia" & "albinism" found 37 Chromosome 11" In Human 23-linked group Presence of "SRY"gene om "y" chromosomes is essential for triggering the developing of maleness Human- ave •Sex-Linkage in Humans: X-linked Recessive trait +X-linked X-linked Recessive trait are common in Make. X-linked trat fellow Zig-Zag Path- are considered CarNERS - and will generally not show symptoms of disorder- X-linked trait follow Zig-zag Path.. Female Possessing one → A Male and Female X-linked recessive mutation child of an affected mother has sór chance of Inhenting the mutation and thus beng affected with the disorder All male Possessing an X-linked vecessive mutation will be affected - All offspring of a Carriers Female have a 50% chance of Inheriting mutation- All Female children A affected father will Carners- an be No male children of an affected father will be affected- Example: o Haemophilia "A" z "B". Colour Blindness. Diabetes Insipidus- + ➜>> dominant traits + X-linked dominant traita, + Also Known are Common in Jemale. a ABO-Blood group system There are more → Bernstein explain genetic basis of ABO-system. (1925) ABO- blood group system discovered *Karl by (1901) Landsteiner International Society of Blood transfusion major group system has recognized up to 30 than 200 minor blood groups (Rare blood group types) Zurrently RH-blood group system Cum of 50-defined blood group antigen- Among which most important ones. 5-Antigens D, C,c, Ee are Commonly and 807 will be All Female children of affected father affected. No male children of an affected father Will be affected- Example: Alport's syndrome 10 Coffin's Lowry syndrome Idiopathic Hypoparathy Vitamin D resistant Rickets ar Hypophospha- -temie. Consist used RH-factor, RH-Positive RH-negative is refers to "D" Antigen only- An ABO - Blood group system 2- Dominance relation Present 8 Completly dominant Co-demmant -y-linked trait. "Holandric Inheritanc Y- linked trait Follow straight way- in → Y- chromosome in Small-does not contain many gene- therefore few trait are y-trait. Y- linked trait are only generally Passing from father to son. with no "Interchromosomal genetic recombination" Example: deletion • Male infertility (J- chromesin e Hairy ear (sex-limited such traits whose genes are located on both X and y" chromosome are called "X'-s'y linked trait" Pseudo autosomal trait " 0 " →Bombay Phenotype 1 → Individual phenotypically "O" but genotypically like A, B or AB. Bombay Phenotype is present in about 0.0004% (about 4 Per million) of the Human population generally Bombay phenotype is present 0.01% (1 in 10,000) Mumbai of Inhabitants. about + O Poly genic Inheritance: Quantitative trats. Qualitative traits Have few Phenotype that have sharp and more obvious difference them. among They show discontinous Variation- Example Pea seed shape (round & wrinkled) @ 4 O'clock flower Colour (s-phenotype) (red, pink, white) ABO Blood group System (4-Phenotype) (A, B, AB, 0) + Have large phenotype that have mall and less striking difference- show is They Continous Variation Example: Ⓒ Number of trait such as • Height @ weight • Intelligence Skin colour in Human Grain Colour in wheat. (All these show wille range 4 Phenotype) -Detection of gene linkage : test Cross Ⓒ Gene linkage can be easily detected by Performing a two gene pairs (dihybnd test cross) سلط 44 all four Phenotypic Combinations (Parental & Recombinant) Produced in equall then there would be are 1:1 1:1 ratio no linkage blu gene 44 this ratio is deviated i-e less more Parental type 3 recombinant type Incomplete or Partial linkage- this Indicate the 44 only Parental type Produced Complete or tight linkage believed- → An Incomplete dominance the phenotypic & genetypic ratio is Same- Test Cross Tt x tt → In Incomplete dominance the genotypic & Phenotypic ratio is 1:2:1- + + Back Cross = + Tt X TT + Cross b/w Fi-hybrid with either of parents - Chromosomes & its structure, Centromere located in the centre- K Types of chromosomes o Metacentric : (V-shaped) sub-metacentria (J-shaped) Centromere located slightly away from centre → Acrocentria 1 (i-shaped) Centromere located near the end Telecentic: ci-shaped) Centromere located at an end- -Her + Composition of chromosomes: Chromosomes is made up of 40% DNA & 60% motein human chromosome 18 which consist nucleotides- ➜ An average size approximately 5em long DNA about 140 million - DNA ble of strong affinity for Histone Histones due to amino is negatively charged molecules Phosphate group. therefore it has Protein- H₂ A @H₂ B ⒸH3 ⒸH4 ➜ Proteins are aboundance of some Es acids Histones Proteins b/ww ⒸH₂A + Such DNA of are + H₁ Histone Protein is a of Coding "Promotor" Positively charged "Lysine"" ⒸH₂ B about 200 nucleotide of duplex around the Core wrap twice 8-Histone Proteins Each of two Histone Proteins) basic "Arginine" А 5-types - H3 ⒸH₂ Regulatory region Located strand of 1 associated with Small sigment of DNA Clinker DNA) Nucleosomes - every two Centrifugation of DNA sample DNA sample dissolved in Cesium-chlonde solution (CsCl) DNA of control (both strand N • DNA of Sample Structure of gene Ⓒ Gene usually has regulatory region structural at "0" minute region- both strand "NIS of "Operon". to the 5 end gene is called Regulatory region Located to the 3'- end of Coding strand 4 gene is called "Terminator The region b/w Promotor & Terminator called structural region - 12 + In Eukaryotic gene the information of structural region is " interruped by : 6 Non-functional sequence called Functional sequence called LS Intron" "exon" There no such Pattern of Intron and exon" in Prokaryotic DNA- In "Prokaryotes many adjacent that synthesize structural gene different Polypeptides age regulated by Same Promotor 8 Same terminator regions- Such a group of gene is Called → Levels of organization F Chromosomes (4-level) Ch 23 Chromosomes & DWA unequal leng Nucleosome + 10 nm chromatin fiber 30mm (Solenoid) (G11 G phase) Super coiled → 200mm Chromatide + 700mm Meselson-stahl experiment • In this experiment finally Concluded that replication of according to "Semi- Conservative model" DNA occurs DNA of sample at 20 minute (one strand of N14 DNA 4 Sample at 40 mmute M as "Lighte formed Sediment at top of test tube appeared "Heaviest". 34 formed Sediment at bottom of teat tabe fermed Sediment level to hoved intermediate & one of NAS) b/w lightest 2 Heavest has two sediment one at the top S other at intermediat level- -Process of DNA-replication direction 5²-3'end) Extension ay Polymenzahen Termination Initiation phase → Initiation Phase is charecterize by the formation of replication bubble 8 replication fork- at a particular site "Origin of " replication. be more may An Eukaryotic DNA there than one origin of but in replication site, Prokaryotic DNA there origin of replication- one Extension phase is characterged + Termination phase by the Formation of daughter is characterized by strands (Leading & logging) the replacement of Primers by DNA nucleotides and Joining A Okazaki'n fragment in lagging strand to form is only + Primers": is short oligonucleotide Continous strand. strand of RNA acts as start site for the DNA-Polymerase I Replication bubble is formed activity of DNA-Polymerase, has dual Junction When DNA-Gyrase and 1-e besides Polymense it also act as DNA-Helicase work at congine DNA-Polymerase -I: Perform of replication- an Important zole in termination phase of replication- (i-e provide support to the DNA-Polymerase # in replication) Exonuclease ODNA-Polymerase-I • DNA-Gyrase : open the tum (Topoisomerase), of DNA- Spinduplex uppe freight) attached to the 3'-end 4 okazakis Vodder lackier • DNA-Helicase: Break down ⒸDNA-Polymerase I: involves Fragment where it in repaining Process of DNA add DNA-nucleotides. G + Daughter strand ave actually synthesize by DNA-polymerase the of enzyme- with.. "Primers" the base Pair of DNA damage during the life time and give like a bubble appearance- cell- → After break down of base paire DNA -Polymerase II: main enzyme that synthesizes both daughter strands along the during replication are te process. the single strands of DNA Prevented to pair up again by specific Protein called "single stranded binding Proteins Okazaki's fragment: In Prokaryotes + 100-200 In Eukaryotes + 1000-2000 nucleotides nucleotides. Gene- Expression: +Initiation phase Transcription CDNA mRNA) + Elongation phase (5-3 direction Transcription begins with the bindings of RNA-polymerase at A= RNA polymerase bise to promotor, Sigma factor Promotor region Located towards S-end of coding strand) is released and remaining + In Prokaryotes: @TATAAT+-10 sequer Core enzyme extends Located in Promotor) TTGACA +-35 Sequence Polymenzation-of (YNTP) the Sigma → Sigma factor is involved for RNA-polymerase to binds to promotors- In Prokaryotes, only one type of RNA-Polymerase is Found- Pelymese In Eukaryotes 3-type of RNA- ORNA-Polymerase-I → Synthesize TRNA RNA-Polymerase-Synthesize mRNA & RNA-Polymerase-III Synthaaze tRNA mizu mung ta zo) @ In Eukaryotes @TATA (box) +-25 sepu- It does not requires CAAT bor-70 Sequence. Primers to initiate Polymenzation- RNA-Polymerase consist of 4-Sub units - alpha only Ist three subunits + • beta are required for polymorose beta' and on the other hand it cleaves nucleotides from S end of Primers- The Joining 4 okazak.. fragment is camed out by DNA-Lygase enzyme that fmally Construct Phosphodiester bond b/w okazak's Fragment. strand of DNA, that is transcribed is called- Template strand • Anti-Coding strand Antisene strand. Termination phase Terminator region Consist of Senes of GC-base Pair followed by a Senes - AT- base par- The part of mRNA which is transcribed in this region project to form a loop like stacts called GC-hamp- followed by Small tal 4 All-nucleotide. The GC-hampi Causes the RNA- Polymerase to stop the synthesis Opposite, non-transcribing of RNA- strand is called- @Cading strand... & Sence strand - Post transcriptional modification of matur RNA or functional RNA → Process is only associated with Eukaryotic transcnption- During Journey of Primary mRNA, Some enzyme like Phosphatases, & nucleases. can degrade mRNA before its translation. Process by which Primary mRNA → Translation ➜ Process involves 2- events To Protect it • Addition of a cap and Tail (frem degradatie & No ambiguity - (chi) RNA-splicing- (To remove non-protein Coding Sequence > O Codon → Cap Form of 7-methyl GTP (which is like Poly-A tail of mRNA) form of small chain 30-500 adenine nucleotides attached to 3'-end of mRNA) (شتا زیادتی ) Redundaney 0 Translation occurs in • Prokaryotes → cells cytoplasm. • Eukaryotes across membrane of Endoplasmic reticulum Activation of amino acid: Activation of Amino acids relex begins with the formation of to the binding of Initiation Complex. Free Amino acids dispersed in cytoplam to the 3'-end of Particular tRNA. molecules in this way complex is forme called "ammo eyl tRNA Complex is formed- S-5'end+UGA Initiation Complex formed by. Combination of ribosomal subunits Ⓒm RNA →Genetic code! Total 64- genetic Caton С ЦАА → 3-stop cadon UAG UGA 1-start Codon & AUG tRNA Complex is called + Genetic Code P-site (Peptidyl site) E-site (Exit site), where empty tRNAs will leave Ribosomes during elongation Phase- → Formation of Initiation Complex In this phase + Process of translation actually Fibesomal units AUA AGA B AGG 4 +Polypeptide elongation An P- Site Peptide pand is formed b/w Successive amino acids during elongation Phase A-site (Aminocyl site) where Successive tRNA bearing Amino acids will be attached. Nuclear DNA brought by ERNA, which are Jomed together to form a Ⓒ 1st Aminacyl tRNA Complex. The regions of smaller ribosomal Polypeptide chain subunits where first ammocyl. attached is stop Cecon Iso-leucine Arginine is move along mRNA amino acids are encodes Ch #23 Mitoch andral DNA Tryphtophan Methionine stop Codem. →Termination. -Lac operon : of gene expression (Dual Positive & Negative control) Classic example of Positive regulation in bacteria is the Lae operon. responsible for obtainings Energy from Lactos B-galoetasides such 88 the Protein as into An bacteria, genes are clustered clusters that aperon, which are gene necessory to perform Co-ordination function such Catabolism of substrate obtained from outside (Lac operon acids (Try operon) Biosynthesis amino of given (P-+-0) -structure of Lac operon Consist of one re regulatory gene (the i-gene) - → Three gene (z,y and a). Structural 1.8 the j-gene: i-gene code for repressor of the Lac operon- © 2-gene : 2-gene Code for B-galactosidase (B-gal)- which Primarily responsible for the Hydrolysis of diassachandes-(Lactose ·galactose & glucese) Permease? which increases to B-galactosides- a transacetylase © y-gene: Y-gene Codet for Permeability of cells 2-genes a-gene encodes that transfers an , an enzyme acetyl group from acetyl Co-A to O -Mutation: Point mutation : A mutation that causes changes of Single or few nucleotides in the DNA 1 Called Pont mutation- B-galactosides - Deletion: Removal of one or Jew nucleotide from a particular segment 4 DNA- 1 Insertion : Addition of one or few nucleotide a particular segment of DNA- in Base Substitution: Replacement of one or few nucleotides in a Particular segment of DNA- chromesemal aberration: changes in number of chromosome which due to chromosomal occurs non-dis Junction during Merosis- Aneuploidy = causes changes the structure of chromosome called chromosomal mutation. These mutation occurs during Merosis - @Deletion Removal A segment of Chromosomes comprising single of few gene Inversion: Portion of chromosome breaks off, turns around and Join a way that the again in such sequence of genes get reversed. Ⓒ Translocation : involves shifting of a segment of one chromosomes to another non- homologous chromosomes- Duplication: repetition of one or few genes in the same chromosomes_ Menasamy (222-1) Nullosomy : (2n-2) (202+1) (2n+2) Trisomy Tetrasomy → Change in number of chromosomes or loss off one or due to addition more chromosome is called "Aneuplony H Chromozomal (structural - mutation → The mutation that in 6 Eupleidy 2 Change in number of chromosome due to addition or loss of one or more complete set of chromosome is called "Euploidy" " Monoploid (single set). Polyploidy Triploidy (Three set) (3n). Tetraploidy (Four Set) (2n+21) Pentaploidy (Five set) Theories of Evolution : Ladder of nature : Aristotle (384-322) Scala Naturae Be → Creationism (Theory of Special creation): Father Sauerezi (Christian) → Catastrophism (Theory of catastrophe): George Cuvier (1769-1832) → Uniformitarianism : James Hutton z Charles Lyells (1797) (875) → Inheritance of Acquired → Natural selection Darwin Raciptulation theory (: Von Baer) ontogeny racptulate phylogeny (Biogenetic law). At Provides evidence for "divergent volution. Homology Anology Have same origin & → Quite different in Same general arrangment origin & structural of Parts & Smilar mode of development design but often found that have but different functions, the "Same function. It Provides evidence for Convergent the Conditions Example: Human Hand (Grasping) O - Example: • Bat's wing (flying) 。 wings of Butterfly Wings of Birds e Cat's Paw (running) @ Flying Lizards- Horse front leg (running) • Front Hupper (six imming) of whale Sympatrie " Speciation : character: Lamark (1744-1829) Wallace (1859) most commenty occurs through "Polyplody" → through Reproductively. Isolated. evolution". 2 : Reproductive Isdation- formula CRNG ³) (Neo-Dano) + formula (SON. VSD) (Deaunam) →Speciation • Evolutionary process by which new Biological species arise- Polyploidy, dispersal and Variance only create for Speciations_ Allo patric Speciation Hackle, →Darwin theory of (1859) Evolution Over Production struggle for existence. Variation - Natural selection or Survival of Fittest. Speciation- Neo-Darwinism - Gene and chromosomal mutation- Genetic recombination_ Natural selection. 4 Genetic drift. + most common form of speciation. Parapatric Speciation. 1 through Geographically Speciation by extreme change Habitate In → extremely rare an ease- Hardy Weinberg • Principale states Same from following the ℗ No (11) No J W 4 remain theorem: that allelic frequency will generation to generation, due to conditions ; mutatron natural selection- Infinite Large Population- all members of Population breeds. all mating is totally random- Produce Same no. of offspring. no migration in or out of Population- M everyone There is (VID Hardy weinberg equation: o'p" + frequency of Homozygous P² + 2pq + 9² = 1 dominant (AA) P + 9 = 1 Ⓒq→ Frequency of Homozygous (aa) recessive • Pq frequency of Heterozygous People - (Aa) Nitrogen cycle ·Nitrogen fixation : + Atmospheric fixation by Lightening, only fixed the (Non-symbiont) Ⓒ Symbiont → An Brological fixation bacteria 60% atmosphere- O " → In Biological fixation, of Nitrogen gas Intensive - bacteria Small a occurs Ammonia energy it requires 16ATP of enzyme. and Complete set → Types of Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria: • Azobacter (aerobic) Clostridium (anaerobic) Nestoe & Anabaena. spontaneously Tomount 5-8% Hiss way- Psedomonas" Nitrogen-fixing of Nitrogen gas is Nitrification : → Nitrifying Bacteria are Chemoautotrophe Ammonium Ions to Nitrites- (NO₂) → Bacteria of genus "Nitrosemonas Convert Bacteria of genus "Nitrobacter" Convert Nitrites to Nitrates (NO3) Nitrification occurs in well dramed and aerated Soils at neutral PH. Denitrifying bacteria the Ecological succession 1 the reduction Rhizobium (association with root legume are ➜ Succession directional, non-seasonal Cumulative change in the type of plant species that occupy area through Time- Xerosere; to change in during A Xerosere may Lithe seres Psammoseres on Following are stage of Lithoseres: Ⓒ Crustose Lichen stage Moss stage Xerareh Succession include rocks - Sand shrub stage Forest or climax-stage. term Xexo sexe reless Community structure Foliose & Fruiticose Lehen stage. Herb stage. Tree stage water en 97% ➜ earth to be exact. @ 1% of all earth water a form Useable to and Land animals in Human Only about earth 2% (about 66% off all fresh water) is 172 Solid Form- 3% f water is Fresh On, Average about 10% of net energy Production at one trophic level Passed to the next rises Ch#25 Man & his Environment about Productivity in ecosystems generally, with temp. up to 30°C- one. ocean, most Among Primary Production is a given done by Microscopic algae-- Land Among aquatic ecosystem algal beds, and Coral reefs have the highest net Primary Production- Among Land esassystem Vascular Plants carry out most Primary Production- is measured gram per m2 Pyramids of Biomass in Calories per meter 2- The Process of generating electricity is the single Largest source A CO₂ emissions representing 41 % all CO₂ emission Ozone-layer? Population Size! → stratospheric ozone is high Cone. A molecules on the "height from $7 a population 16 defmed m trams of 30-50 Km (stratosphere). ✦ The 90% Ozime Layer Comprises all Ozone Considered to be Important atmosphere Pollution Liquidators- - Ozone layer is the influence of The ozone layer Dobson Unit 100 DU 1 Du measurment moon revolving " on the average that is Some degree of reproductive Isolation, than that Ozone in the world population size is the size of its gene Pool moon earth when the gravitational Sun and add of maximum range abt amed- Created under Sun-light= Thickness er Du. Non-Conventional energy resources: Tidal Power Lunay energy! and + Tides are caused by the Combined gravitational Forces of Sun of the water other called Neap tides In one year approximately an units defining the 1mm 1x105m thickness- Thickness of czane- are * When the gravitational forces due each Sun and oppose moon tides of minimum range are obtained. forces due to together, tides Called Spring tides there are 705 full tidal cycle- 2 Greathermal Power : The outer crust of the earth has an 32 km 2 below thickness of the magma- The earth recieves 1-6x10¹8 units of Energy From the Sun annually- At the depth of 3-4km water boils up- At the depth of about 15km temperature is in range 4 10000-12000 the © Some geographical range than that Population size " no. of Individuals the of living in the defined Arch •Cloning of Gene There 376 Pesouble way of cloning of gene DNA-technology - (In Vive med • Polymerase chain reaction (In vitro) recombinant twe + Recombinant DNA-technology required 50 Gene of Interest tool @Melecular Scissors (Restriction Endenuclease) Molecular camers or Vector Molecular glue (DNA-Lygase) Ⓒ Expression system. + Gene of Interest can be obtained as; © Artificial gene synthesis (In vitre) (In Vitre) From mRNA © By DNA Scissors (Restriction Endonucleas → Restriction Enzymes Hydrolyze Phosphodiester (Restriction Endonuclease) bond b/w deoxyribose. and phosphate group- This leave a Phosphate group on @ Hydroxyl group the within • 5'- overhangs (Bam HI) ► @ 3'- overhangs @ Blunt en 5 O 5-end. 3-end- more + Restriction Endonuclease Cut assymetrically 32P ATP, which transfer s with the recognition site- ay Ampiciline e Tetracyle. © Easy © Helps purification Procedure to obtain intact Plasmids- ·DNA-Analysis, Sanger's method → most widely used. Similar to natural Process of DNA-xplication Pneumonia. (kpl) → Klebsela ': (Smal), (Hael) → The 5' or 3' overhangs generated by Enzymes that cut asymmetrically are Called "sticky ends" Cohesive ends." From two strand, one strand is Punfred from Molecular Carriers or Vector! divide into gel- and desirable ble they? Four samples Small vectors are o Increase Transformation efficiency, to manipulate. @A+G Sangers method beame standards due to PBR-322 carries two anti-biotic resistance genes and Practility- The key to sanger's metted 20 all the reactions start from the Same nuclestices and end with a specific base radioactive phosphorous from amyloliquefacion ATP to 5% end of each stom Biotechnology 12 Maxam-Gilbert mothed i (Chemical cleavage methed) → DNA to be sequenced must frast be end labelled at end only- Kinase treatment Dimethyl sulphoxoid (DMC) is then added - and labelled DNA Sample heated 90°C. to @T+C Example of Vectors: Plasmid + most widely used vector- Molecular glue: Natural bacterial plasmid could be modified @ CDNA-Ligase) to produce new plasmids like PBR 322. responsible for formation of Phosphodiester linkage b/w two adjacent nucleotides PBR-322+ First widely used Veetor- that aets It earlies a Fragment of plasmid PMBI a an origin of replication. → It is relatively small at 4,363 bp- (4,363kbp) PBR-322 is reasonable high Copy number (15- copies Per cell) Ch #26 Phosphodiester Formed blw Ⓒ OH-group at POn-group bend, is the 3-C. 5- C There are different types of Ligase enzyme from different sources - But the most frequently used one → PBR-322 Cares site. Some of these 88 number of Unique restriction are located o site for Pst I, Pvul, Sacl are found in "Ampiciline in "Tetracylime". Site for BamHI, Hind I • T4 DNA Ligase Produced by T4-Bacteriophage. Mechanism of PCR-reaction is DNA-Polymerase Enzyme- "Exponential Process Components of PCR - Techniques : 6 Template DNA. or Target DNA. 1- Cycle PCR 8-mmt. De-oxyribonucleoside - tri-phosphate (dNTPs) requires In 1- Cycle 2-copy of DNA Produced- 4 сорудка @ 2nd- eyde Ⓒ3%d- Cycle 8 copy = →nth- cycle = 2 * Copy DNA. Gel Electrophoresis Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) → Originally invented by "Kary Mullis"- (1983) "In vitro" replication- based upon + Camed out by Primers. Tag -Polymerase. Taq-Polymerase is enzyme Isolated from bacterium found in Tag-Polymerase is near-boiling Mechanism of O Q 4 - a @ Primer Annealing • Extension Polymerization PCR- reaction. Denaturation : Template is Heated to 94°C for 1-5 mint- stable & temperature. a Temperature-Tolerant > U "Thermus aquaticus". Hot Spring- Active at 4 54°C for 2 mint. 72°C for 1 mint. Tissue Culture (cell Culture or Organ culture) In Tissue culture the sterilization of explant usually required- in Chemical solution, are ⒸSodium Hypochlonte (Naocl) • Calcium Hypochlorite (caocl) Mereune Chloride (Hgcl₂) 14 geg → Cell Suspension Cultures are very usefull to obtain some dougs Compound_- For example cell suspension Culture of 3 • Chinchona Ledgeriana : Produce "Quinime O Digitalis Produce Digitoxino Charges →Protoplast culture develop whole or Somatic Lanata used Meristem Culture is mostly used for micropropagation and to obtain visus Parasite free plants - Anther Culture is Microspore Culture →DNA-Electrophoresis is used to separate DNA. Fragment Primarily by size. →Most Commonly used gel for DNA-Electophores • Agarose : For relatively @ Polyacrylamide: For molecule High resolution of Short DNA fragmen Buffer used in gel- Electrophoresis Tris-Borate - EDTA Tais-Acetate-EDTA age also called 4 or "Pollen Culture". An Gel- Electrophoresis movement A Fragment- depends upon : Can be to e number of strands @ shape A molecules Plants by organogenesis Concentration of gel (Poeze Embryogenesis - Ⓒ Commonly used DNA-markers ! RFLP (Restriction fragment Length Polymorphism) VNTRS (vanable ne- of tendon repeat Polymorphim) Polymorphis Mierosatellite SNPS, (Single nucleotide Polymorphism) O The genetic for "Pest resistance (Popularly known bacterium Theymus "Bacillus Thuringie Some of the Commercially grown developed transgenic plants in Countries are a First genes available for engineering of Crops plant were "Cry gene"- as BT-gene) from Roundup Ready Freedom II Squash and "High-Laure repressed Flavr-Savy B Endless New Leaf Maximiger Boll ز Summer Gard seyabean- Canola = Tomatoes Potato Corn. Cotton. Monoclonal Monoclonal antibodie are typically made up by fusing "Myeloma B-lymphocyte Cell" (Cancerous with the spleen cells mouse, from a that has been immunized with desired gene antigene- → This technique Called Somatic cell Hybridization Vaccines Edward Jemmer was the Scientist who developed. against Small Pox The first vaccine was Cowpox -liquid- → The terms by Pastures - -Types of Vaccines: Live © Viral Live Vaccine + Gral Polic Vaceme → Yellow fewer + Measles Rubella → Mumps attenuated 3 Sub-unit vaccine Hepatitis- B Vines Vacone- (Dosage at any age) Vaceme was Proposed In activated or Killed Vival-Killed vaccine Influenza Vixus Hepatitis - A vous Rabies Vacane Polio Vaccine. water When the the remaining milk in This milk Contamed is Called Milk is Bacterial Vaccme : a Vaceme 1796- made from with This milk is -Dairy Product: → Milk as drawn from the animals "Full Cream milk". as Condensed milk has 9% • Bacterial live Vaccine → Typhoid →BCG. Sugar- Khoya is Prepared by Contentz about Vaccine; • Bacteral Cream is separated and Called "Toned 4 Toxoid Vaccine. →Diptheria Toxoid Vaccine- Tetanus Toxoid Vaccine- milk" no fat and "Skimmed milk" Converted to curd due to activities- Killed Vaccine. + Cholera Vaccine 'Immune - → Typhoid Vaccine + Cyclospori (supprest) Bubonic plague Vaccine. → Holstein Friesian (Holland Jaam) on average gives 25-litters of milk per Fats- Concentrated by removing Contents with or without adding day- (Milk yield is known is desiccated milk product water evaporating and reducing 70-75%.. bulk to 7200-9000kg) A Cross breeds Holstem Friensram gives 10-15 litre per day Ch 27 Biology & Human we → Peniciline is Secondary metabolite of Fungus. Penicillium that Produced when growth Fungus is inhibited. by stress- It is not produced during grow. active the n welfare used in organ transplant Patient- Produced by fungus & Trichoderma polysporum agent. Biogas is 50-75% methane- Co₂. I remander in * Nitrogen & other gases 31% milk solid, of free energy + Approximately 114 Keak in plants are stored biomass for every mole of CO₂ Fixed during Photosynthesis. Lovastatin Produced by Yeast "Monascus Purpureus blood-cholestrol lowering Yoghurt making : ( Dairy product produce by the The milk sugar "Lactose" is germented by the friendly into Lactic acid Known Lactic acid bacteria Bactera LAB include → • Streptococcus • Streptococcus Lactobacillus Ats PH range The Selid Part by and as LAB using Contam 3-type 4 Bacteria- Salivarius- Thermophiles. Bulgaricus- (PH = 4-5). Coagulation is the Liquid past is " Whey "_" Coagulation can Cheese The or ripened of the Known as be Reminet tablets, the milk Produced "Curd". Known Can by the Bacteria, Jungi or Controlled which enzyme Renin, be matured addition of both Bacteria "Saccharomyce Convert sugar to ethanol & CO₂- (alcoholic fermentation). Ices Cervisiae → Beer in 7 by from Jern ntatio A ""Maltose" by Jeast made 4. Wie is fermentation of grapes sugar by yeast- 4 +Beer in brewed from , which is Barley grain Partially germinated. to Convert starch to maltose"._ @ The process A Conversion is known as "Malting"- Gibberallime & Amylase are used to Speed up the process of Germmation - 8 to Increase amint A Sugar to produce more alcohol- The liquid obtained from this Procedure is known as Wort"- c