Nicolaus Copernicus, a Prussian polymath, challenged the long-held geocentric model by proposing that the sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe. This Ap european history toward a new worldview concept, known as the Copernican Hypothesis, had far-reaching scientific and religious implications.

Definition: The Copernican Hypothesis proposed that the sun, not Earth, was the center of the universe, challenging centuries of astronomical thought.

Copernicus's theory:

• Solved the mystery of retrograde motion of planets
• Suggested a vastly larger universe
• Used mathematics rather than philosophy for justification
• Challenged Aristotelian physics
• Raised questions about the location of heaven

The reception of Copernicus's ideas was mixed. Protestants were more open to the new model, while Catholics initially rejected it as contradicting Biblical doctrine. However, new celestial observations in the late 16th century, such as the appearance of a new star in 1572 and a comet in 1577, began to cast doubt on traditional astronomy.

Highlight: The Copernican Hypothesis was a key Scientific revolution breakthrough in ap european history, fundamentally altering our understanding of the cosmos.

Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman and astronomer, made significant contributions to the field through his meticulous observations of the night sky. Funded by the Danish king and later by Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, Brahe's work laid the groundwork for future astronomical breakthroughs.

Example: Brahe's detailed observations of the 1572 supernova $then called a "new star"$ challenged the notion of an unchanging celestial realm.

Johannes Kepler, Brahe's assistant and successor, used the Danish astronomer's data to formulate his laws of planetary motion. These laws provided mathematical proof for the Copernican model and laid the foundation for Newton's later work on gravity.

Highlight: Kepler's laws of planetary motion were crucial Ap euro scientific Revolution discoveries that supported the heliocentric model.

Galileo Galilei, an Italian physicist and astronomer, made groundbreaking observations using the newly invented telescope. His discoveries, including the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus, provided strong evidence for the Copernican system.

Quote: Galileo famously declared, "Mathematics is the language in which God has written the universe," emphasizing the importance of mathematical analysis in understanding nature.

These scientists' work collectively dismantled the old Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system and established a new, mathematically-based understanding of the cosmos. Their discoveries were central to the Scientific revolution breakthroughs in ap european history and set the stage for the modern scientific method.

The Scientific Revolution had profound effects on European society and thought. It challenged traditional authorities, both religious and academic, and promoted a new way of understanding the natural world based on observation, experimentation, and mathematical analysis.

Key impacts included:

1. A shift from a qualitative to a quantitative understanding of nature
2. The development of the scientific method
3. Increased skepticism towards traditional knowledge
4. The rise of scientific societies and academies
5. The integration of scientific thinking into other areas of life

Highlight: The Scientific Revolution was a logical extension of the Renaissance, as both movements emphasized observation, reason, and the pursuit of knowledge.

This period laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment, as the success of the scientific method in explaining natural phenomena encouraged its application to social and political issues. The Scientific Revolution breakthroughs in ap european history thus not only transformed our understanding of the physical world but also reshaped European intellectual culture.

Example: The Royal Society, founded in 1660, exemplified the new scientific culture, promoting empirical research and the exchange of ideas among scholars.

In conclusion, the Scientific Revolution marked a pivotal moment in European and world history. It overturned centuries of established thought, introduced new methods of inquiry, and set the stage for the rapid scientific and technological advancements that would follow in subsequent centuries.

16.1 Major Breakthroughs of the Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution marked a profound shift in how Europeans understood the natural world. Prior to 1500, knowledge was largely based on Aristotle's works and Christian theology. Natural Philosophy, an early term for studying the universe, relied heavily on these traditional sources.

Definition: Natural Philosophy was the early modern term for studying the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned, encompassing what we now call 'science'.

The Aristotelian Universe theory, revised by Christian theologians, placed Earth at the center of the universe surrounded by ten revolving spheres. This geocentric model, however, failed to accurately account for celestial movements.

Highlight: The Aristotelian Universe theory was the dominant model before the Scientific Revolution breakthroughs in ap european history.

Ptolemy, a 2nd-century Egyptian astronomer, proposed a complex system of epicycles to explain planetary motions, while Aristotle's teachings dominated physics and concepts of motion.

Vocabulary: Epicycles were small circular orbits that planets were thought to follow while also orbiting Earth in a larger circle called a deferent.

The origins of the Scientific Revolution can be traced to several factors:

1. The establishment of universities in 14th-century Western Europe
2. The Renaissance's emphasis on mathematics and geometry
3. The fall of Constantinople in 1453, bringing ancient texts to Italy
4. Technological advancements like the printing press
5. Exploration efforts leading to new scientific instruments
6. Interest in astrology, magic, and alchemy

These factors collectively set the stage for the revolutionary scientific thinking that would follow.