Alternative transcript:

behaviour is affected through the environment. Behaviour is learnt through environment this is called classical conditioning and operant conditioning. The behaviourist perspective suggests that all behaviour is learnt through stages of reinforcement and possible punishments. Behaviour comes from experiences of environments, suggesting that individuals learn from others around them. There are two different procedures that happen in this perspective, this includes skinner and Pavlov. Pavlov believes in classical conditioning and skinner believes in operant conditioning. Both their suggestions help understand human development and how their development can connect with the psychological perspectives. Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning is an approach used when behaviour is being learnt. This is a sort of conditioning and the learning process which something becomes conditioned (stimulus) that did not respond to something that is unconditioned (stimulus) that is used to give the response. Classical conditioning is the term that behaviour or a learning process that happens when stimuluses are put together, in which a response is chosen by the second stimulus and then by the first one on its own. Pavlov's study showed that the learning process happens between the environmental stimulus and a natural stimulus. Pavlov, who is a Russian psychologist, found out that for alliances to be made the stimuluses had to be introduced near enough the same time. Pavlov used this process on dogs to understand how the dog's digestive system can react to a stimulus. When a bell was sounded the dog knew it was time to be fed. The dog learned to put together the bell sound with food. Pavlov discovered that the dog was producing more saliva or dribbling because the dog was receiving food. Due to salvation being a reflex, Pavlov named his experiment unconditioned which means it is a natural response to a certain stimulus. sysx Mcleod, S. and Mcleod, S., 2018. Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning is the formation of learning through punishments and/or rewards for certain behaviour. Operant conditioning is the process which was found by B.F. Skinner, and he argues that behaviour is learnt through given rewards or punishments. Skinner took time to understand how animals learn from the consequences of their behaviour/actions. He took his focus to reinforcement in which this will help to make sure behaviour does not happen again. Skinner demonstrated that rats can be taught responses given by rewards and punishment of behaviour. Positive punishment- this is when a reward is given in return of good behaviour. Being able to behave the same way again so they can get a reward. For example, giving a child a reward such as sweets for finishing their homework. Negative punishment- This is when something unpleasant Is removed when the desirable behaviour happens. It is the removing something that makes behaviour worse. For example, when you remove parental controls on the tv when the child shows she is able to be responsible to watch mature shows. The types of reinforcement were discovered when Skinner studied a rat that was put into a container/box which then the rat got food when the lever (bar) was released by the rat. The rat had a positive reinforcement because it went continuously back to the bar for food. In which Skinner opted to show negative reinforcement by replacing the box with an electric circuit in which the circuit stopped when the rat went on the bar. This therefore demonstrates that because of the different results, behaviour can therefore be either encouraged or discouraged to absorb behaviour. Verywell Mind. 2020. Understanding Andy's behaviour through the behaviourist perspective, this is because understanding how Andy develops his behaviour. This can be clearly shown through Andy's negative feeling from his road accident, which could be explored through classical conditioning. Andy therefore used two negative stimulus and grew a (conditioned) response through his anxiety or anxiousness- which is how he was detected to have PTSD, so when he comes across a situation like his accident, he will possibly develop anxiety every time. Operant conditioning could cause Andy to hide away from the situation that could make his anxiety worse because of positive reinforcement because his anxiety did not occur naturally but only from an event. P2: Understanding specific human behaviour: The behaviourist perspective is useful when trying to understand specific human behaviour. The behaviourist perspective believes that depression comes from an individual's interaction with their environment. Mcleod, S., 2015. For Andy they could suggest his PTSD was caused from positive reinforcement being removed from the situation such as his wife who tragically died. The behaviourist perspective gives us the opportunity to acknowledge how we can challenge behaviour from humans, as we are able to work towards the behaviour that we want to challenge. Using the behaviourist perspective of either reinforcement or the alliance to create a newer reinforcement or alliance. The perspective as well gives individuals the chance to understand humans changing behaviour. This is because behaviour is believed to have been taught or learnt through operant and/or classical conditioning, which suggests that this behaviour can also be reversed and not learnt while using the same skills that the behaviour was learnt from, this can involve reconditioning and behaviour shaping. The behaviourist perspective helps to promote the use of systematic desensitisation treatment to address and overcome phobias, this is completed by putting out a less desirable behaviour and replacing the behaviour with a more desirable or wanted behaviour. Systematic desensitisation works by a professional such as a therapist instituting an individual to new techniques or relaxation techniques to loosen up. This is because it is not possible to feel at fear and feel relaxed at the same possible time. A ladder or hierarchy of fear are linked together to show an individual's fear, which begins with the smallest amount of fear to the most amount of fear. When the frame is completed, individuals start with the least fear and start to calm themselves to get over that fear, they then work their way up their hierarchy to the most fearful one. Working in the correct order to overcome all their fears, and not just skipping to the end. Systematic desensitisation can be used as a form of treatment to help mark the phobia by pointing out the state that is causing the individual to be anxious like a fear of snakes, being able to use the hierarchy to address the situation from their least fear to their highest fear. This would involve a hierarchy of the first step to look at a picture of a snake, to be in the same room as a snake but the snake is kept locked in a container, to appear next to the snake in the closed container, to stand next to the snake in an opened container, stand near someone picking up the snake, to touch the snake and then eventually hold the snake. Individuals are given different approaches to overcome their hierarchy of fears and to stay calm in situations when addressing their phobias, for example hypnotising the individual, when the approach has been taught and the individual has learnt it they will address their hierarchy of fears and begin while staying relaxed all the time. Using systematic desensitisation approaches for Kiera will encourage her to overcome her addiction to pain killers and her possible fear of going to a hospital and understand that she is safe. Systematic desensitisation will help understand the specific changes in Kieras behaviour. She would be taught different procedures/approaches to overcome her fears and understand why her behaviour has changed. Kiera would also be taught techniques and she should have her own hierarchy that connects to her experience following her surgery. Kieras hierarchy would begin with her looking at hospital pictures, therefore she is aware of the expectations and what it could involve. After this step she could begin to step inside of a hospital and sit in the waiting sector, in which she can start to communicate with hospital staff like doctors/surgeons/nurses, so she is familiar with the situation, and can learn to build relationships and trust her possible carers. Kiera could then be asked to go in a hospital room and lie or lean back on a hospital bed, she should then understand that she is an appropriate safe room, but knowing she is still able to take control of herself. Kiera could then have check-ups days after from the professional she was speaking too. To be able to complete these stages in her hierarchy Kirea should start of relaxed, so she is able to carry on through the stages to overcome her phobias. Bibliography: Pavlov's Dogs Study and Pavlovian Conditioning Explained | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html#:~:text-Pavlov%20found%20that%20for%20ass ociations, then%20learning%20will%20not%20occur.> [Accessed 28 May 2021]. What Is Operant Conditioning and How Does It Work?. [online] Available at: <https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2- 2794863#:~:text-Operant%20conditioning%2C%20sometimes%20referred%20to, or%20positive) %20for%20that%20behavior.> [Accessed 30 May 2021]. Psychological Theories of Depression | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/depression.html> [Accessed 3 June 2021]. Mcleod, S., 2021. Psychology Perspectives | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html> [Accessed 5 June 2021]. PSYCHOLOGY WIZARD. n.d. Systematic Desensitisation. [online] Available a <https://www.psychologywizard.net/systematic-desensitisation.html> [Accessed 6 June 2021]. Mcleod, S., 2021. Independent and Dependent Variables | Definitions & Examples | Simply Psychology | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html> [Accessed 7 June 2021]. Mcleod, S., 2011. Observation Methods - Naturalistic, Participant and Controlled | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html> [Accessed 11 June 2021]. The Importance of Psychology in Our Daily Lives - How Psychology can Help You?. [online] Available at: <https://www.scientificworldinfo.com/2019/11/the-importance-of-psychology-in-our-daily-lives.html> [Accessed 28 May 2021]. P1: Understanding of human behaviour: Social learning theory: The social learning theory is the explanation of behaviour as the outcome of learning from other individuals we could come across in our environment. The social learning theory also outlines that we can learn or imitate behaviour that we see online or in real life. This theory is well known as the "observational learning" which was done by an American psychologist named Albert Bandura. (Mcleod, n.d.). Copying behaviour can either be positive or negative and we can understand the given consequences of the behaviour. Most of the time we only copy behaviour that we know will have a positive outcome. Observation and imitation: When individuals observe someone such as role models we praise their behaviour and follow how the act in a certain way, in which we copy their behaviour or the way the act. Observation is watching someone closely and admiring what they do. (Mcleod, 2011). Imitation is when behaviour or action is repeated by the individual. If the consequences are positive individuals will imitate that behaviour. For example, the Bobo doll experiment demonstrates the social learning theory and shows observation and imitation. The main goal of the Bobo experiment is to look into whether young children observe and/or imitate their role models. The method or the Bobo Doll experiment was that the investigators dealing with the experiment split 96 young children into four separate groups, in which three of them were shown a person being aggressive to the Bobo doll. The person used punching and kicking to try and 'defeat' the doll. The children's behaviour was then observed as a form of seeing if they imitate what they saw. The results of the experiment ended with the children who saw the person hitting using violence on the Bobo doll became more violent than those who had not saw. This experiment shows that children will imitate what they observe such as behaviour Another example of Observation and imitation is when a child watches their 'role model' such as the parents folding or putting away clothes, the child would then observe this and imitate this behaviour by folding and putting away their own clothes. Banduras study and what he found out: In the 1960's Bandura directed a sequence of experiments on observational learning, which was known from the name Bobo doll experiments. Bandura found out that learning can happen through observation and social modelling. Also, that children copy aggressive behaviour that they see. Observational learning influences learnt behaviour. Imitating behaviour happens when we admire or watch that specific behaviour or action. This is what he found out in his experiment that those who watched the behaviour happen, copied that specific behaviour than those who did not see anything. Role model theory: Role models are individuals or groups of individuals who others look up too. A role model is someone who you look up too such as parents, celebrities or siblings. When we look up to someone as our role models, we are more likely to copy what they do as we 'want to be like them' no matter the consequence. The role model theory outlines that because of our differences such as culture, religion, society, social groups we are more likely to become influenced by others. When we become influence by others, we begin to learn about the environment that is around us and we adjust to that environment, we learn and try to catch up to our role models' expectations. Imitation happens through observing role model's behaviour and understanding their outcome, or their behaviour they are showing us. Individuals then memorise that behaviour and try to replicate that specific behaviour. The social learning theory gives us guidance when explaining culture and social groups influences on specific behaviour because of the factors that are elaborated with the environment. Culture refers to our shared norms, values, language. Being able to understand how individuals' culture could affect behaviour, this is because cultures may have different rules. ARMS- This approach summarises how and why we imitate behaviour. The first step in this approach is attention. Attention demonstrates that we must have paid attention to the specific behaviour or role model. R is for Remember; we must remember the behaviour we have just saw in order to affectively imitate it again. M is for Motivation; we should have the motivation to copy this behaviour. S is for Skills; we must have the specific skills needed to repeat the behaviour we observed Factors associated with role modelling: There are different factors that are associated with role modelling, this includes availability- this is when the behaviour will need to be observed within the environment. Another factor that is associated with role modelling is attention- this is when an individual may need to pay attention to the behaviour an its possible consequences. Retention is another factor that is liked with role modelling, this is when the individual will need to store the observed behaviour in their Long- term memory (LTM) in which this information should stay for a longer period of time. This is where imitation may not always be copied. Reproduction associates with role modelling due to the individual that should be able to reproduce or portray the behaviour they observed. Motivation is liked to role modelling because this is where the individual should expect to obtain the same positive reinforcement that is for copying the behaviour they saw. Cultural and societal influences on behaviour: Culture normally refers to share values, norms, language, practices and customs of a certain group of people. Many cultures may have different rules and customs e.g. Some cultures consider too much eye contact rude or some consider no eye contact rude depending on their rules and customs. Culture also relates too different groups in society who share a minimum amount of beliefs/ customs. Self-fulfilling prophecy: Is an idea that impacts the way our behaviour is towards other pec and how we anticipate others to act towards us. We car flattering impression of ourselves if we think of ourselves as likeable joyful etc. We are more likely to be polite and give a good impression of ourselves. Our actions (towards others) Our beliets Self-fulfilling Others' beliefs (about ourselves) Prophecy (about us) Others' action (towards us) (Counseling, 2018) The social learning theory can be used to help understand Andy behaviour and how they develop this behaviour, this is because Andy could have had a role model who he witnessed self- harm so he observed this behaviour from his role model. P2: Social learning theory- Understanding specific human behaviour: The social learning theory is important when trying to understand human behaviour and what can cause different or specific behaviour. The SLT helps to understand more about the individuals background and where the behaviour could have come from. Some people could have learnt behaviour from either family and/or friends in which they were observing the behaviour. Role models can be used to promote anti-discriminatory behaviours and practices this is because role models who could be celebrities or people who you look up to, could possibly use their voice/platform to talk about surrounds issues such as discrimination or issues, or show that they can overcome issues, for example Princess Diana who is a world known famous celebrity with a high class status in 1987 she went and visited an HIV and AIDS positive hospital with different patients, she then showed that there should not be prejudice towards people with this illness by shaking their hands and showing appreciation towards the individuals in the hospital. Another example can include Martin Luther king spoke about equality and civil disobedience, in which he managed to change the world and influence others to change for the better. He made sure that all those who were disadvantaged were treated equally. Role models are influencers who can encourage people to be healthier, change the world, use their voices ect. Role models can be used in order to promote charities and safe health campaigns, for example a celebrity who appears in a healthy eating campaign, individuals who think as them as their role models are more than likely to start eating healthier. Another example is Angelina Jolie who chose to speak about her health issues and chose to raise awareness of this, which included her double mastectomy. The social learning theory could be used to help understand specific behaviour in Keira's this is because the social learning theory helps to understand how Keira could have learnt specific behaviour from her environment or surrounding. Keira's phobia of hospitals could have come from her traumatic experience after surgery which resulted in her being diagnosed with cancer. Bibliography: Mcleod, S., n.d. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html> [Accessed 11 June 2021]. Mcleod, S., 2011. Observation Methods - Naturalistic, Participant and Controlled | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html> [Accessed 11 June 2021]. Counseling, 2., 2018. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Creating Your Own Unwanted Outcomes - 2nd Story Counseling. [online] 2nd Story Counseling. Available at: <https://www.mychicagotherapist.com/self-fulfilling-prophecies/> [Accessed 16 June 2021]. P1: Psychodynamic perspective- Understanding human development The psychodynamic perspective outlines the human behaviour comes and determines from our personality, our experiences and how well we understand ourselves. Sigmund Freud applied this theory to explain how humans develop their behaviour. Our behaviour operated by our unconscious motives, feelings, memories and past experiences that are often stored in our minds. Information of out unconscious mind can accidentally leak out in dreams or is called the 'slip of the tongue'. Going through childhood can often become an important part in development and could shape our 'adult' lives. Unresolved unconscious conflicts can lead to an impact of mental disorders which could happen in childhood. Resolution could happen when accessing or coming to an agreement with restrained ideas and/or conflicts, which are pushed to the unconscious. The psychodynamic perspective involves theories of psychology that are used to see how humans' function and what could affect development. ID, EGO AND SUPEREGO: Freud had the idea of 3 different principles that make up our personalities and how humans develop. This includes; The ID is the 'selfish one' and is the one who needs quick satisfaction without ending with good considerations. The ID is the "pleasure seeking precept". Id is unconscious and part of the psyche in which it responds directly to important notices. Whereas the EGO is the one who develops to consider the unrealistic id and the external real world. The Ego is the 'deciding precept' The ego works if they have a reason, in contrast to the id which is confused and unreasonable. The superego absorbs morals and values of the societal world in which the morals are learned from parents. The superego learns to control the id's instinct including those in which the society does not accept like violence. The superego also has the role of encouraging the ego to s more realistic goal instead of realistic goals and to aim for excellence. Freuds model of mind; Freud stated that every individual has 3 features that are in our minds all at the same time. The 3 features/characteristics include the Id, ego and superego. Freud found out that if the 3 features are unstable, this can lead to problems such as anxiety and could in the future lead to further issues such as mental disfunction. (Mcleod, 2019) Defence mechanism and controlling of behaviour: When a defence mechanism is built, it will help the ego fight of unbalance conflicts and moral demands of the id and superego. The defence mechanism is a psychological plan that are unconscious which are used to provide protection to a person suffering from anxiety and to stop this from happening again, which could lead to feelings and thoughts that are intolerable. Anna Freud his daughter in 1936 came up with the idea of defence mechanisms and grew her ideas further by including 10 of her own. The defence mechanism is made up of different ideas such as; Mechanism Repression Denial Description Repression is the idea of an unconscious mechanism that works with the ego to make sure that all the intimidating or worrying thoughts are kept safe to stop them from becoming conscious and spilling. Denial includes ignoring outside events from awareness. When an event becomes too abundant for Example This is when a child forgets traumatic evens that occur in their childhood. The individual will block out all the bad things such as a family member/close friend dying. They may continue to Displacement Regression Reaction formation the individual to handle the individual will ignore it as they do not want to go through it. When a person redirects their undesirable impulse upon a safer object This Is the return stage to familiar or underdeveloped stage. An individual goes against their original desire and against how they originally felt. 2020) express that they are there with them for e.g. charging their phone to talk to them. The psychodynamic perspective can help explain Andy's behaviour because he may be in denial of his accident that is causing him to self-harm, and the PTSD from his traumatic event. When he comes across his PTSD he may self-harm to push away the thoughts and feelings he gets from the traumatic event. (Mcleod, 2020) When an individual loses in a game them may become angry and punch the pillow to get their anger out. For example, a child that is pass the bottle stage may ask for a bottle if they see a new baby being fed from a bottle. A person who secretly hates their boss tells everyone how nice the boss is. Psychodynamic perspective- Understanding specific human behaviour: The psychodynamic perspective helps to explain and understand specific human behaviour. This is because the psychodynamic perspective suggests that you inspect the formation of the psyche. This picture below demonstrates the psyche and the components of the psyche (mind) Understanding challenging behaviour; To understand challenging behaviour; we should look at the psyche (id/ego/superego) and see how they are balanced. By involving all their emotions and feelings to see what makes up part of the behaviour. The psyche is made up of the id, superego, and ego in which the superego surpasses half of the mind and the ego and id being a quarter of the psyche each. The diagram demonstrates how we only notice the conscious part of the psyche and the id is completely hidden. The psyche is important when recognising our behaviour and to see if it is operated by our unconscious forces. Conscious Preconscious SUPEREGO Unconscious EGO ID (Iceberg Metaphor structural model for psyche. Diagram of id,.., Understanding and managing anxiety; To clearly understand the formation of anxiety, the psychodynamic perspective would recommend the superego to be strong and take control of the situation. Whereas the ego could possibly be packed with ideas of excellence that could be harder to achieve. Anxiety is the disagreement between the id and the ego this is when angry and passionate drives are seen as inappropriate which could lead to repression. When the drives are repressed this could lead to anxiety due to them breaking. Individuals could experience psychoanalysis- this is where there are different techniques used to provide people with therapy. The therapist or analyst would sit down and work with the individual to understand their type of anxiety through different methods like dream analysis or free association. The main belief of psychoanalysis is that people have unconscious thoughts and feelings. Dream analysis is a technique used in therapy, in which Freud saw dreams as the royal 'road' that ravels to the unconscious mind and then develops dream analysis. Free association is when an individual receiving therapy states anything that comes to their mind, they speak freely and express themselves using words. While undergoing this technique the analyst would give them a word in which the person receiving the therapy would answer with whatever comes to their mind first. (How Psychoanalysis Is Used in Treating Social Anxiety Disorder, 2021) The psychodynamic perceptive can help to understand specific behaviour in Keira, this is because her ID personality has taken more control which is leading her to be more frustrated to take pain medication. Bibliography: Simplypsychology.org. 2020. [online] Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html> [Accessed 17 June 2021]. Mcleod, S., 2019. Id, Ego, and Superego | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html> [Accessed 17 June 2021]. Mcleod, S., 2020. Defense Mechanisms | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html> [Accessed 16 June 2021]. Verywell Mind. 2021. How Psychoanalysis Is Used in Treating Social Anxiety Disorder. [online] <https://www.verywellmind.com/psychoanalysis-for-social-anxiety-disorder- Available at: 3024911> [Accessed 17 June 2021]. 123RF. 2021. Iceberg Metaphor structural model for psyche. Diagram of id,... [online] Available at: <https://www.123rf.com/photo_53928500_stock-vector-iceberg-metaphor-structural-model-for- psyche-diagram-of-id-superego-and-ego-for-defense-or-coping-me.html> [Accessed 17 June 2021]. P1 Humanistic perspective: Understanding human development: The humanistic approach focuses on humans' experiences and the viewpoint of an individual. The approach focuses on free will and the capability of making choices. The humanistic approach is linked with two psychologists are Abraham Maslow and Carl rogers. Self-actualisation: Abraham Maslow believed that Self-actualisation is the ability to achieve full potential. Becoming the best version of yourself and aiming high, intellectually, emotionally physically and spiritually. The completion of potential, the ability to achieve your full potential is at the top of Maslow's hierarchy of needs so therefore not every human can reach it and would have to go through different levels to reach the top. Fitts, W.H., 1971. The self-concept and self- actualization. Studies on the Self Concept. Abraham Maslow grew his own hierarchy of needs for humans which were based on two different groups, which were; deficiency needs and growth needs. Humans needs some basic needs that need to be met before they can move up a level. There are 5 stages In Maslow's hierarchy of needs which include; (figure 4) Self- actualization: achieving one's full potential, including creative activities Esteem needs: prestige ond feeling of accomplishment Belongingness and love needs: intimate relationships, friends Safety needs: security, safety Self-fulfillment needs Physiological needs: food, water, wormth, rest 1) Physiological needs: This is what humans need for basic survival this includes, hunger, thirst, sleep, bodily comfort and oxygen. 2) Safety/security: This is when an individual is moved away from danger, free from anxiety and chaos, they also have stability and predictability. 3) Emotional and love: This is when individuals strive for affection from other people, they are accepted and like to be with others. 4) Self-esteem: This is when individuals achieve, are competent and are able to get approval and are recognised by others, this can include gaining self-respect. 5) Self-actualisation: This is individuals being able to achieve their full potential. Self- actualisation has different characteristics in which you can be self-actualised. This includes being; problem focused, being able to accept ourselves and others for what they are, maintaining a positive attitude to life and appreciating life, having personal concerns about growth, being able to have peak experiences, spontaneous thoughts and actions. In order to achieve our desire, we have to go through stages before we can reach the top of the existence (hierarchy of needs). Carl Rogers (1902-1987)- Person centred therapy: Carl Rogers who is a known American researcher for counselling individuals and found the concept of person-centred therapy. Rogers became engaged and intrigued by the idea of self- concept. Rogers suggested that for us to 'grow' we need self- acceptance and empathy, and without these two we cannot develop health relationships and our personalities may not develop. The therapy was used to help individuals' conditions to improve and that therapists should show empathy towards others. Tudor, K. and Worrall, M., 2006. Person-centred therapy: A clinical philosophy. Routledge Carl Rogers theory and what he found: Carl Rogers theory was based on self-concept. Self-concept mentions the view we have of ourselves which includes individuals physical and biological qualities. Self-concept can be established from 3 different stages which include self-image/self-esteem/self-worth and ideal self. Self-concept can be seen from early ages in which younger children internalise the views of others, this then aligns with their own self-concept. Carl Rogers found out that young children do not have the ability to make their own judgements about stuff people expose to them. Negative self-concept can also be picked up from the things that we hear from people about Psychological needs Basic needs ourselves. Self-image is the view we have ourselves. Self-esteem/self-worth is the idea of how much we value ourselves or how good we feel of ourselves. Ideal-self is the idea of what we wish we were like and how we feel that we should be. Whenever a mismatch happens between our actual self and ideal self this is when we could become unhappy our angry. Self-actualization won't be able to show if incongruent and congruent don't overlap. The incongruent view moves to the congruent one. The humanistic approach can help to understand the development of Andy's behaviour because he may lack sleep due to his PTSD which could eventually affect his development. P2: Humanistic perspective- understanding specific human behaviour: The humanistic perspective can be used in the empathetic theory, this is because Humanists may argue that an individual will become depressed when society stops them from recognising their full potential. A humanist would suggest that when an individual is suffering from depression we should see a empathetic therapist who will then show empathy and listen and give them the support they need. A humanist may encourage individuals to try and believe that we still do have the possibility to still help ourselves and that we can become who we want. Crucial features of empathetic therapy: The crucial features that are included in the empathetic therapy are as follows; Unconditional positive regard: This is when the therapist promotes acceptance and warmth of the individual, the therapist shows that they are accepting the individual and what they are saying to them, without judging them for this. Empathy: This is when the therapist should put themselves in the individual's shoes and see what they are seeing from their perspective, they should also maintain concentration by promoting active listening and showing empathy through positive facial expressions and body language like nodding as a sign of agreement, to ensure the individual is comfortable. Genuineness: This feature of the empathetic theory outlines that the therapist remains themselves and does not change for their client, this can include faking feelings or facial expressions or responses, they should only show what they are feeling when It is needed. Empathetic understanding: This is when the therapist should have their own emotions to ensure that they are helping their client and not giving off the wrong impressions. Using sensitivity when it is suitable for the situation. Active listening: This is when professionals should pay attention to other individuals and what they are saying, including your body language and the facial expressions you show should also be noted. Daydreaming and not listening to the other person speaking can seem as if you are not interested. The humanistic perspective can help understand specific changes in Keira's behaviour because the perspective suggests that understanding the individual's emotions can help understand certain behaviour. For example, understanding that she has became addicted to pain killers because of her surgery. Bibliography: Open Library. 1971. The self-concept and self-actualization (1971 edition) | Open Library. [online] Available at: <https://openlibrary.org/works/OL6610004W/The_self_concept_and_self- actualization> [Accessed 24 June 2021]. Google Books. 2006. Person-Centred Therapy. [online] Available at: <https://books.google.com/books/about/Person_Centred_Therapy.html?id=Wi6PAgAAQBAJ> [Accessed 24 June 2021]. Cultureofempathy.com. 1957. Culture of Empathy Builder: Carl Rogers - Page 1. [online] Available [Accessed 27 June at: <http://cultureofempathy.com/References/Experts/Carl-Rogers.htm> 2021]. Cognitive perspective- understanding human development: The cognitive perspective a psychological view that aims to focus on how individuals store and process information and how individuals can use this information to resolve problems. Psychologists suggest that humans store and handle information like how computers or technology handles their data. Psychologists aim to leave their focus on how mental processes are developed. The cognitive triangles demonstrates that our behaviour and emotions can influence each other and connect with each other, depending on the environment. BEHAVIOUR (What we do affects ve think and J THOUGHTS (What we think affects how we feel and act) EMOTIONS (How we feel affects what we think and do (That Darn Cognitive Triangle; Again, 2018) Piaget's stages of cognitive stages of development: Jean Piaget (9th August 1896-16th September 1980) was the first psychologist to study the cognitive development and come up with solutions towards this. When Piaget was studying the cognitive development he also noticed that some children who were the same age also made the same mistake within logic no matter how smart they were. Piaget's stages of development: Jean Piaget came up with 4 different stages that demonstrate children's cognitive development, the 4 stages are stage 1: sensorimotor which ranges from (0-2). This is where children show their intelligence from motor activities, they also seem to lack knowledge about the real world, because of their interactions or experiences. Children see the world through their senses and aim to develop their language skills towards the end of the stage. The 2nd stage is Preoperational from ages (2-7). Children show intellectual development through symbols and language skills. They develop memories and begin to use their imagination. Their egocentric may begin to dominate or show through their feelings. The 3rd stage of Piaget's cognitive theory is concrete operational from (7-11), this is where children can gradually pick up conversations but not yet fully problem solve mentally. They can apply their logic to situations and to come up with a solution to smaller problems not bigger ones. The 4th and final stage of formal operational from ages (11+) This is where older children use their abstract thoughts and can now fully demonstrate their intelligence. They are also able to come to conclusions from the information they were given. Piaget found out when studying 3 of his own children and creating a theory based on the stages he thinks they passed through. Piaget believed that children play a role in the process of learning, where they may act as scientists by undergoing experiments and observations of the world. He used two different processes that show development, which are called assimilation and accommodation, the processes are in place through the individual's life because they may adapt to their environment. The cognitive perspective can help to understand the development of Andy's behaviour this is because Andy has begun to self-harm due to the loss of his partner. He may self-harm as a form of grieving for his Partner and has since adapted to the environment of where his road accident took place. P2: Cognitive perspective-understanding specific human behaviour: The cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) works by the idea that individuals' thoughts and feelings are all connected. CBT is a form of talking therapy in which the therapist communicates with you to help you solve your issues. They do this by trying to change the way you may behave or think. CBT is mostly used when it comes to anxiety or depression, however can still be used to treat mental health issues. The therapy helps to manage problems in a positive way, they do this by splitting your problem into different parts and tackling the parts 1 by 1. Therapists may show you how to change the negative feelings which will aim to help you improve how you feel. The CBT gets people thinking of a positive way about the world. The CBT aims to handle newer issues instead of previous issues. FEELINGS BEHAVIOR CBT THOUGHTS (What is Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), 2019) Understanding depression: American Psychiatrist (1921-) put together the cognitive behavioural therapy. This therapy was helpful in understanding depression. The CBT has a section called the cognitive triad- in which the triad helps to understand depression by describing the pattern of behaviour which is linked to individuals who are suffering depression. Supporting individuals with learning difficulties: The CBT will provide support for individuals who suffer from learning difficulties, they can do this by identifying th unreasonable thoughts, the therapist would provide them with guidance in order to help them change this thought. People with learning difficulties may come across difficult situations in which they could become annoyed or frustrated, which could eventually affect their lives. Having their unreasonable thoughts identified could lead to improvement in their self esteem and may help to minimise outbreaks, that could set off individuals if the situation is not fully understood. Therapists may encourage their clients to try new or different behaviours which has a positive outset and can be used on others. Supporting individuals with emotional problems: The CBT will support people who struggle with their emotions. The CBT begins by inspecting the thoughts of the individual and what thoughts could influence their feelings, in which this could result to a change in their behaviour. We all experience distorted thoughts in which It could lead to behaviour change. For example; jumping to conclusions/ catastrophising. This distorted thinking could lead to social and emotional difficulties. Identifying irrational/distorted thinking: The CBT will focus on helping individuals deal with their irrational and distorted thinking by understanding how their thinking patterns may influence their behaviour. Individuals may be told to keep a diary or note down any negative feelings, irrational or distorted thoughts. The CBT may not work straight away due to thoughts being automatic and individuals may experience these at odd times, however it may get easier in the future, or the more you take part in the therapy. The therapist may start by minimising your problems into small parts to help identify your thoughts and possible behaviours that could be testing them. The therapy works by minimising your chances of even more episodes. Understanding PTSD- (post-traumatic stress disorder): PTSD usually happens after an individual experience a traumatic event/situation. For example; car/plane accidents/ rape etc. Some traumas are too much they can lead to symptoms such as intrusion; this is where the individual may experience the situation again in either flashbacks or nightmares. The individual may have recurring recalls of the traumatic event. Individual's may also experience avoidance; this is where the individual will try their best to avoid the situation or anything that was connected with the traumatic event. People may also come across increased arousal where the individual may experience difficulty concentrating or sleeping due to the event. The cognitive perspective can help understand specific changes in the behaviour of Keira this is because, understanding the process of what is causing her to change her behaviour such as traumatic events or situations. Keira has experienced a traumatic event when she underwent surgery 3 years ago which altered her appearance and since then has became addicted to pain killers to avoid the situation. Bibliography: Medium. 2018. That Darn Cognitive Triangle; Again. [online] Available at: <https://medium.com/todays-story/that-darn-cognitive-triangle-again-f9ebf9e049b9> [Accessed 30 June 2021]. Huitt, W. and Hummel, J., 2003. Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational psychology interactive, 3(2), pp. 1-5. Emerald Psychiatry & TMS Center. 2019. What is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). [online] Available at: <https://emeraldpsychiatry.com/what-is-cognitive-behavioral-therapy-cbt/> [Accessed 2 July 2021]. Biological perspective: The biological perspective is an assumption that we are controlled by our biology like genes and sometimes the environment like pathogens. The biological perspective states that we are directed by our genetics and possible physiology. When we become psychologically ill, it is because of possible genetic damage or incident. While we should only pay attention to our physical element of our human behaviour. Maturational theory: This theory is the belief that how the environment affects us is small. A child is usually born with sets of genetic instructions that are genetically passed down from their parents, and their cognitive/physical development, which unravel throughout time. This suggests that development is more nature not nurture. The maturational theory includes developmental milestones; such as fine and gross motor skills, personal hygiene. These all show the developmental process and different milestones. Gesell's maturation theory: Gesell's theory is concluded by Arnold Gesell (1880-1961). He believed that development took place as a result of a sequence of the maturational process. E.g. The developmental process in the womb will follow a set of stages. This includes when the heart starts to form, then comes the nervous system, which bones and muscle will develop in the next stage and then over time, the organism will develop fully into an actual human being which is the ready to be born. A child will develop from birth forwards, which its genes will allow it to grow and develop into a person they are mean to be. The environment will also provide support for the development of skills, personality and behaviour of the individual during the maturational process. Genetic influences on behaviour: There are many influences that can affect behaviour such as behavioural characteristics which are caused by genes. These genes are found in the chromosomes which make up our DNA, and are inherited from parents. Our Genes make us who we are and who we may become. For example, Huntington's disease is commonly caused by 1 dominant gene, in which one of the parents may pass on to their child. Disorders often occur no matter the environmental influence as it is already in our genes. For example, with Huntington's disease; symptoms start to show between 30 years old - 50 years old. There are often behavioural changes such as hallucinations, memory loss, confusion. Due to there not being a similarly rate of 100% there are environmental factors which could play a part, therefore there tend to be talks about individuals have a predisposition to furtherly developing a disorder. But will only happen if environment is unfavourable. Explanation the influence of the nervous system and endocrine system on behaviour: The (ANS) Autonomic nervous system will become active and stimulate nerve fibres within the nervous system, the brain and the body by activating release of hormones from the endocrine glands like the adrenal glands. Hormones are then released into the bloodstream which can affect target organs and the behaviour of individuals. Hormones become present in small parts and every molecule have short lives, the effects of each molecule disappear if not secreted every day. The nervous system and the endocrine system impact our behaviour. Stress responses in our bodies activates both the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. For example, when someone reaches an event or situation that is threatening, part of the brain called hypothalamus will set activity off in the sympathetic branch within the autonomic nervous system/ endocrine system. This perspective helps to understand Andy and Keira's situation, this is because both Andy and Keira went through threatening life situations, in which their surrounding environment changed, this was because Keira's threatening surgery went wrong and caused her trauma which could have activated her to react to the situation as quickly as possible. This perspective can also relate to Andy's situation due to having a road traffic accident, which could have triggered his flight/fight response and caused adrenalin to rush through his body. P2: How the perspective can help understand developmental norms referring to assessment scales and cube tests: Understanding developmental norms such as how Arnold Gesell managed to develop a assessment scale which was used to active judgments on a child's behaviour and their understanding on what will match their chronical age (the age of their child). For example, the developmental norm for managing to walk around is about 12 months. For example, tests will be carried out on certain ages to ensure that children are developing as normal. Skills or trained professionals who can assess children are able to identify developmental problems which may happen and will be able to give the right intervention. There are three stages which development is measured this includes stage 1: Between 2 ½ - 6 years, stage 2: between 4 and 6 years, and stage 3: between 6 and 9 years. Different ages may receive different tests to understand assess the different aspects of which development can happen. Cube tests are mainly used for children between 2 and 6 years and are used to assess their ability to follow rules, instructions in order to perform a task which is structured for them. Within assessing the children there are different types of assessments that may happen such as visual perception, fine motor- co ordination skills e.g. cutting, colouring which are all assessed by the developmental norms. Children's attention span may perceive shapes differently, which can also be used to measure. They all provide information about different reading skills that can be used. For example, the use of the cube tests, this includes a sequence used to become near to fine motor assessments. Understanding the influence of genetic predispositions to certain illnesses: It may be hard to understand or analyse the extent of how genes influence our illnesses, however some situations show that they do. There was a biological predisposition which showed there was an increased chance of developing a disease or behaviour due to genes inherited from parents. For example, infantile autism, this is a rare but increasing disorder, and effects about 1000-2000 children. There are different psychological explanations used to determine autism but have not bee investigated properly. There is current research in place that shows how genetic influences can play an important role in the disorder. Another example could include schizophrenia which shows genetic links. For example, in identical twins there share the same genetics like 50% of schizophrenia cases happen in both twins. There is also a genetic part to schizophrenia which cannot be accountable. Genes in our body also make us as an individual more vulnerable because of the disorder and only in the case of a negative environmental condition is when it is triggered. If schizophrenia is genetically determined this is where twins share 100% of their genes in which they both develop the disorder. If this does not happen then environmental factors or influences will explain the part not accounted towards/for. E.g. a person who inherits a vulnerability to schizophrenia, if life is smooth and they are stress free then this person will be free of the illness. Understanding health related behaviour: Genetic predispositions to illnesses may need to be considered altogether with health-related changes such as behaviour and the environmental factors or influences for example this may include; A child who is born with a genetic vulnerability to breast cancer; if they examine their breasts regularly and they are fit and healthy, they then attend breast screening appointments which would make a difference in reducing their chances of getting the disease. It may also be difficult to separate the effects of nature and nurture when comparing to health-related behaviours. Protection measures may be used to reduce the chances of someone who is genetically vulnerable. This Biological perspective helps to understand specific changes in behaviour such as understand Andy and Kerias behaviour. This is because behaviour is a consequence due to our human genetics and believes that specific changes in behaviour is due to our genetic influences and how the brain processes may influence the way we think and act. Human development perspective Nature Vs Nurture: Nature relates to a genetically inherited behaviour/personality and development whereas nurture relates to environmental interactions that help us develop our behaviour/personality and development. Nurture is the belief that everything will happen with the environments help even when in the womb, this will influence the child growing up. Nurture demonstrates the way a person is brought up and how they 'socialise' which can also demonstrate the way we may treat other people like friends/parents and teachers, this will influence a person's behaviour/development which helps to build a person's personality. Nature is the consideration of a person's development and what their focus is towards. This also comes towards our genes that we may inherit before born. There are also some arguments that a person's inheritance may have a big influence on the person they become. The argument stated by behaviourists psychologists and biological psychologists relate to both sides of nature and nurture. The behavioural psychologists relate to nurture arguments such as how they take the belief that we are born as blank states and we basically start of with nothing no personality or behaviour/development. They develop through socialisation with the environment. Whereas the biological psychologists argue that we become our own influences due to our development from our genes this also influences our behaviour. An argument given that demonstrates Nature vs Nurture includes intelligence. There is a belief that a way of demonstrating nature vs nurtures argument is to look at the intelligence of it. If there is intelligence that is an inborn quality which develops then there is automatically no effect on the environment. Even though children become exposed to different environments which may seem much better compared to those who do not have as much fortune and opportunities like education etc. The second argument which may demonstrate nature vs nurtures debate about human development is towards Gender. This is where sex is referred to biological characteristics such as being a man or a woman. Gender is also the word that is used to present behaviour, beliefs, our expectations, attitudes, which may be thought of as being the same with both genders. For example, a boy who is born with the urge to become more boyish than a girl, however if he is brought up in a environment where being quiet and restricting individuals from expressing themselves is encourage, the boys boyish thoughts may become less over a period of time. Continuity Vs Discontinuity: Continuity is a view of belief that development occurs slowly at a continuous rate like height growth. Whereas Discontinuity is a development which may see a different between different stages like qualitative instead of quantitative. For example, Freuds theories. When it comes to development they debate on whether or not development is actually a smoother process that has no showable changes which take place, this is (continuity). Or whether a discontinuous process happens, this may lead to development occurring in stages (discontinuity). An example that may demonstrate continuity includes a look at quantitative instead of qualitative changes. This includes the growth size of a human skull or how a child's vocabulary will increase in words. This can also be demonstrated by how when a sponge becomes wet it gets behaviour but however does not change its shape. When explaining Discontinuity, this relates to how development happens in stages, for example how Piaget will explain the changes from the pre- operational to concrete operational stages. Nomothetic Vs Idiographic: Nomothetic is the focus on a person's recognition and their uniqueness. They may also experience private, subjective, and conscious thoughts. There are concerns on a certain group or class of people like children aged 7 or every adult suffering from Type 2 diabetes. Whereas Idiographic is the study of a persons and their unique characteristics that will make them difference from other people. When studying psychology there are case studies which may use an idiographic approach to express their concerns when finding out why a certain person has developed in a way they did. The different theories that support the Idiographic approach includes the psychodynamic and humanistic perspectives, which supports their understanding in human development. The perspectives that support the Nomothetic approach includes the biological, behaviourist and cognitive perspectives, to support their understanding in human development. M1: Analyse the contribution of psychological perspectives to understanding specific behaviours: Behaviour Anxiety Depression Separation or loss Stress and coping Common Behaviours & symptoms Individuals who suffer from anxiety may have frightened feelings/thoughts and may be worried more often in specific situations, this could cause them to start panicking or may start to show fear. Those who is struggling with depression may experience typical behaviours or symptoms that occur in depression, this may include difficulty in making decisions or finding it hard to concentrate. This could lead to a decrease in individuals' energy or them feeling hopeless, as they have no energy to feel confident. This could be due to grieving over the loss of a close family member or friend, or even someone you knew, this is common as everyone will go through grief in their life. Individuals may feel that the foreseeable future is despairing, due to that person not being in their life anymore. This could also lead to a change of the persons eating pattern as they may be feeling anxious more often. Someone who is grieving may go wonder and look for their loved one in which they used to go all the time, which could lead to the person becoming depressed if it becomes serious. This type of behaviour could result to symptoms and common behavioural changes such as finding normal tasks harder in which they may seem like a chore, resulting in the person becoming overwhelmed or tired, leading to them not doing the task, leading to Self-harm prejudice and discrimination Child abuse addiction Violence and aggression headaches and bad dreams or sleepless nights. This is shown through random behaviour changes such as hurting themselves to release mental pain they may be feeling. However, the pain relief is commonly only temporary and self-harm could become an addiction if done multiple times. This is when there are negative attitudes or behaviour shown to close family members in which the person is prejudiced against, this could lead to people being treated unfairly just because of how they look or how they are. They are discriminated against due their actions/appearance/behaviour/religion etc. This is a form a physical abuse against another person and can result in kicking, punching, burning, slapping the other person, this type of behaviour can also become emotional in which the child is subjected and shows fear against their abuser. This may show in the victim's behaviour or attitude when they are around their abuser. This is where someone has an obligation to display a particular behaviour that results in them hurting themselves or injuring themselves, and those around you. This may include addictions like nicotine, alcoholism, drugs, self-harm. When someone has aggression, this can become verbal or consistency of insults or detrimental words towards another person. Human behaviour can be understood by perspectives, such as the cognitive, behaviourist, humanistic and social perspectives. Due to Andy being diagnosed with (PTSD) Post-Traumatic- Stress-Disorder and since he began self-harming. The cognitive perspective helps to explain Andy's PTSD because the perspectives different theories provides support for individuals that suffer from emotional distress or issues, as Andy sufferers from PTSD this is an emotional issue and may require support. Also, the behaviourist perspective can be linked to Andy's challenging and changing behaviour, this is because Andy should be reliant on learning to believe that self- harming can be unpleasant and could lead to a change in his inadequate behaviour, which may refer to certain behaviour that is unhelpful towards an individual and may secrete them into troublesome situations. Andy's mental health illness seems to be getting him into disagreeable situations because he started self-harming himself. This could then link to the social (biological) perspective because the perspective suggests that individual's behaviour can be explained and taught through environment that the person was revealed too. Andy's behaviour can be explained due to him having PTSD through inheritance of parents through which it was the environment he grew up in. Andy may have also witnessed those around him self-harming which could have influenced him to copy. The Humanistic perspective may also contribute to understanding Andy's behaviour / mental illness this is because Maslow confined in that emotional needs will need to be focused on, this may include being loved by others. Due to Andy losing his partner, he may not feel loved by anyone anymore and therefore this could make him emotionally distressed and stressed in general. Therapies have been put in place to allow an individual suffering from this to talk to a therapist and express their feelings. This would help Andy as it will improve his self-belonging and can get rid of the loneliness he may be feeling, as he can share his feelings, this is a good support as Andy can also get help with his self-harming. The Psychodynamic perspective will help to explain Keira's behaviour this is because Keira's ID is shown to have taken control of her personality. The perspective helps by showing how our behaviour is controlled by our unconscious mind. This perspective helps to identify how our childhood experience is important for later life. Since Keira went through a traumatic experience at an earlier stage of her life and now has bene stuck with her for 3 years, this has showed how the perspective links to Keira and her experience affecting her. Understanding the nature and nurture side of Keira's behaviour and how it can link to mental health issues. Theories of human development can also help to understand Keira's behaviour as the theory suggests that human development is based on different factors that affect the way we behave. The Biological perspective may not be able to help understand Keira's behaviour due to how the perspective does not consider the influences of the environment on behaviour. The perspective would not look at how the environment around Keira influence her behaviour, due to being unable to explain the consciousness and self-consciousness. This perspective may not recognise social influences and factors due to it being too simple and not considering these as influences on behaviour. Factors that affect human development and specific behaviours: Factors are specific situations which affect us overall. For example, physical factors may include genetics, diet, physical activity. The 5 main factors which affect human development and certain behaviours includes physical, social/cultural/emotional, economic, physical environment & psychological. Physical factors: Physical factors can influence how we develop as humans and our behaviour, this is due to the effects of the circadian rhythms. E.g. some people may wake up early and feel refreshed and full with energy and excitement, whereas some people may find it hard to even get out of their bed in the mornings and may struggle with concentration during the beginning of the day but then may have energy in early hours of the whole day. Due to the differences this is an affect of the circadian rhythms which is a function which follows 24 hours -25-hour clock involving secretion of hormones and the effects of alertness/concentration and the whole sleep/wake cycle. These effects can impact how individuals function and could become a risk for specific workers on shifts, like traffic controllers and/or health and social care professionals. The Circadian rhythms can impact behaviour due to how it can impact our immune system, how our cognitive memory processes and the impact on our sleep-wake cycle. There are different physical influences that can affect our development and our behaviour this includes the overall structure and the function of the human brain. People who suffer from traumatic brain injuries and those whose brain injury affected their frontal lobes show different behaviour patterns from their normal behaviour. There is also significant behaviour change in those suffering from dementia. This can also relate to the case of Phineas Gage- He died in 1860 and was American, who was a railroad construction foreman who has now been remembered as the guy who survived an incident in which an iron bar went through his brain. M2: It is important to identify factors that may be affecting and influencing Andy and Keiras behaviour. There are physical factors that seem to be affecting Andy such as his self harming and ptsd. This factor is important when supporting Andy because of how Andy selfharming and suffering from PTSD leading to depression and emotional struggles. Andy self harming can affect his physical health due to blood loss from cuts etc and may lead to actual physical pain. PTSD can lead an increase in blood pressure and stress resulting in lack of energy to stay physically active Subheading: Social, Cultural and emotional factors: We may be influenced by our family and society due to how we retrieve the information or follow the footsteps we perceive this includes learning table manners from our family in which they demonstrate and we become influenced by this. For society this could relate to social influences such as standing up for ourselves and not hurting anyone, while also standing up for those who cannot do so themselves. This shows what we have learnt from the society due to either witnessing or being told by someone else. This can also relate to culture influences such as how we should be respectful and well mannered when interacting. Respecting other people's religions and beliefs demonstrate the norm we have been influenced by, these influences may conclude how humans develop and how behaviour changes based on their influences. Some individuals may be influenced by being told to express how they are feeling and openly discuss their worries and issues which are concerning to them. This may include anger, sadness, happiness etc. However, some people may be casted down to express their feelings or even to show their emotions, due to the influence of others being put down. We may develop emotionally, in which certain social and cultural settings will influence how we develop and our behaviour. M2: Social, cultural, and emotional factors may also contribute to Andys behaviours, this is because of how his road traffic accident lead to emotional difficulties as he lost his partner. People who are viewed as different or strange by society just because of their behaviour may lead to the person become vulnerable and bullied. For example due to Andy self harming and suffering from PTSD he may be viewed as different or strange as he is unable to hide the fact he has these behaviours that happen. Every person will be brought up in their own ways and will be different from other people. Some people may be brought up with the idea to express themselves and how they are feeling however some people may not and may be brought up to stay quiet and keep themselves to themselves. Andy has become so stressed he has kept quiet and thought of different ways to express himself in selfharming. He hides how he is really feeling with the relief of physical pain. Economic factors: Economic factors relates to the amount of money that we have to be able to spend on our basic needs which will help by influencing behaviour and our health. For example, one money influences our behaviour and health, for example having a higher self-worth and confidence. By also increasing easier access to gain healthier foods and increase facilities. A negative impact on our behaviour and health includes an individual's diet which may be a result of being unable to afford fresh food. Limited access to services like opticians, Gp's may be an issue for some people, as they may not be able to afford the fares which are needed to get to appointments and back. There may also be issues with certain diagnostic tools like screening tests like smear tests. Our physical well-being can be improved when we perform certain activities and tasks like yoga and/or swimming, this is because it helps to relax our muscles and destress while also improving our socialisation with other people. M2: Physical environment factors: Depending on the type of environment a person is in can influence how we develop and our behaviour. For example, a person who has kids and come from an urban area with no safe space for them to socialise and play, they are more likely to become stressed than an individual with a bigger garden for them to play in. Urban areas result in a lot of traffic pollution and are have more noisy streets. When a person lives in damp areas which are overpopulated this could contribute to specific health issues. When there are negative conditions this could make mental issues worse and could lead to anxiety or depression to develop faster than usual. This may include the broken window theory in which the theory was around how different social signs like littering, graffiti can lead to more serious crimes and could become widespread throughout a community. The theory suggests that when individuals see rule- breaking in he environment they are in, could make them think it is applicable and could lead to them copying and breaking rules themselves. M2: Psychological factors: The way individuals are treated can result to us growing up having a larger effect on the way we develop/ behave. If we experience positive feedback from someone and are treated with respect/kindness this could lead to us be able to express ourselves better and our emotions. By allowing his to happen we are more than likely to develop into happier people while being able to form relationships easier and better than those who don't experience positivity instead they get negativity. If a person experiences criticism and a lack of support from close family/friends this could lead to anxiety or depression in later life. Those with negative relationships to start with are at an increased risk of becoming an alcoholic than people who experience a positive relationship early. E.g. This may lead to Bowlby and Holmes theory. John Bowlby born (1907- 1900) conducted his theory that children had insecure attachments during their infancy stages and were more than likely to get negative behaviours in later adulthood life than people who develop secure attachments. M2: P4: Contribution of psychological factors in managing behaviours Cognitive perspective Cognitive behavioural therapy is a well-known talking therapy which is in place to help individuals manage their issues by understanding and learning new processes to overcome their issues and by changing the way you think and may behave. There are 3 stages when it comes to 'change' for CBT this includes catch, check and change. You must be able to catch by identifying the thought or feeling that was in place before the emotion, you then should check it by reflecting on the accuracy and the usefulness of the though, then to be able to change it, by understanding how to change the feeling/thought to the right one needed. CBT is a 1-1 based therapy and used to help patients understand and identify the negative thoughts. They are mainly encouraged to note down their thoughts regularly including how the thoughts made them feel and what happened to their behaviour towards the feeling. CBT can help to manage the treatment of phobias, this is because phobias are treated using Wolpe's systematic desensitisation. Wople's theory was that a person cannot be relaxed and anxious (or feeling some type of way) at the same time, this is where a person's fears would develop into a hierarchy. Many phobias consist of having irrational beliefs and many patients would be motivated to analyse their negative thoughts/beliefs and explain whether they can be realistic or not. Testing an individual's beliefs is part of understanding the behavioural side of the therapy. E.g. someone with a phobia of spiders may look at spiders that are in clear containers where they cannot escape and then check and understand whether their beliefs and fears about spiders are/were realistic. Managing mental illness: The CBT's way of managing mental illness involves treatment which uses CBT for anxiety and depression. The CBT has techniques such as identifying the negative thoughts a person may be feeling and then finding ways to change their behaviour, they will then reflect on if they think their negative thoughts are true and are accurate in some cases. Managing Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): PTSD is the belief that something bad will happen to you again due to past experiences. CBT can support those suffering from this by helping them reflect on how realistic their beliefs are. CBT's behavioural component may involve a person putting themselves within a situation that may trigger their symptoms like going to a previous traumatic place like car crash. By helping individuals that what happened before will not happen anymore, this can help the individual challenge their negative thoughts and reduce their fears. For example, someone who witnessed a fire or was in a fire and survived will become anxious every time a fire happens due to their previous experience, by the CBT challenging this, they will help the person get over their negative thoughts and help them think it won't happen again. Overall the managements used above can support Andy and Keira this is because for example Andy who was in a road traffic accident suffered from PTSD due to the loss of his partner, by Andy undergoing the CBT's treatment such as going back the area where the accident happened and removing the negative thoughts and replacing them with the belief it will never happen again, this will help him overcome the PTSD he is suffering from due to facing his fears. It can also be used with Keira due to undergoing surgery and becoming addicted to painkillers and since changed her appearance. The CBT can help her overcome this by getting her to reflect on her negative thoughts and understanding whether these thoughts are true or not. Social Learning Theory Positive role models -managing behaviour: Having positive role models can allow individuals to imitate a role models positivity and teach them new social skills and new ways of overcoming traumatic and difficult situations. Those who suffer from extreme social phobia can become exposed or open to learning from a role model with good social skills. By allowing the individual to experience and understand what is positive about the role model. Like their eye contact, body language, posture etc. The individual can then copy their role model's new behaviour to support them overcome their fear/phobia. Managing/treating eating disorders: People with eating disorders can be supported to challenge society's standards due to the research of Fairburn, Marcus and Wilsons study in 1993. Those suffering from the disorders are most likely to experience negative beliefs about their appearance and shape, they may believe that they are fat when really, they are extremely thin. To overcome this SLT can be used to treat disorders and encourage people to look at images of role models that are not extremely thin and are still labelled as attractive. This cannot be used to manage Andy and Keira due to them having no role models to actually rely on, as they were by themselves, they may also have no positive role models to imitate. Psychodynamic perspective: Transference relationship: Is a way in which patients in therapy may transfer their feelings, values and beliefs from someone important in their life e.g. Mother/Father, they will believe that the analyst is to be like an individual. Free association- this includes a patient expressing what comes into their mind without censoring their thoughts. The analyst may also interpret what is being said to them to try and understand their symptoms. Catharsis- This is where there is a release of emotional tension that may happen when the unconscious mind releases something and is now solved. Psychoanalysis helps to undercover feelings that have been left behind in the unconscious mind due to it being painful to be aware of. This can happen by analysing individuals dreams, relationships and identifying ego defence mechanisms. The analyst will then make interpretations to which can be accepted by the individuals to understand what and why they have done. This can lead on to the catharsis which is state of which symptoms result due to denial and will disappear when the individual is free and can move on. Factors influencing behaviour: Psychoanalysis can take time to be a part of the patient and analyst. This is because our ID has impulses which are unacceptable towards the ego and superego. This is because they are most likely to be buried or kept behind but leak out different symptoms. This process can be painful as it is there to untangle all of the different processes that are involved to keep this material and section away. Freuds studied a case in which he explored and investigated different factors that may and can influence behaviour. It helps to support and manage behaviour as it finds a way to understand why behaviour happens and how to overcome this. For example, one of Freuds studies was on a 5-year-old boy 'Little Hans' in 1909 the 5-year-old had a phobia of horses in which he reframed from going out in the streets due to anxiousness of coming across a horse. Freud analyse his experiences that they boy went through which was told to him by the boy's father, and concluded that the boy's fear was due to an ego defence mechanism in which in reality the boy was fearful of his father not the horse. He wanted his father to disappear due to feeling him as a competitor for his mother's love. This can be used to understand Andy and Keira's behaviour due to analysing why Andy and Keira are feeling this way and what unconscious wishes are they foreshadowing with. Understanding their true ego defence mechanism as a reality of what they are actually fearful off. Humanistic perspective: (PCC) Person-Centred Counselling will start with the conclusion that everyone has the same capability to be able to live a healthy life to the fullest. This perspective is different due to the therapist not being seen as the expert. The therapist would work with the patient to support them to recognise their values, beliefs and behaviour that are affecting their ability to live a happier and healthier life to the fullest without any stress and worry. The therapist would support the patient by giving them unconditional positive support to help them feel safe and valued within their relationship, this will also support the person to give and discuss their own negative beliefs without being fearful or the fear of being judged. The patient would decide what their own issues are to work on and the therapist would support this by reflecting the patients' needs and their own concerns. This can be used to manage Andy and Keira as it can help and support them with one on one support and therapy. This way Andy and Keira can get equal support when managing their conditions. Biological perspective: Drugs: can be used to manage and control behaviour, this is because drugs can be used by psychiatrists and other trained professionals can be used to manage behaviours to help people live a better life. Drugs can be prescribed to help improve their symptoms e.g. to control anxiety/stress patients may be prescribed benzodiazepines to control their symptoms. The drug will help to increase relaxation, allowing a person to carry on with their everyday life. However, some medication may not be recommended for longer periods as it may lead to addiction or becoming less effective. When drugs are used with therapy it will help the person find different coping strategies. For example, ADHD, the drug prescribed is most likely going to be an amphetamine substance, this drug is usually a methylphenidate drug and is a prescription drug usually prescribed to the individual. Non-prescriptive drugs usually impact a person's mood/behaviour but may become depressant and may result to the use of illegal drugs like cocaine and heroin. Biofeedback: Biofeedback can usually be used to manage behaviour this is because biofeedback is used to treat stress-related disorders and the illnesses that may associated with activity in the brain, like ADHD. Biofeedback works with changing the way aspects may work in the human body, this is a biological strategy. Biofeedback involves retrieving information about physiological aspects of an individual's state e.g. heart rate/blood pressure, this may show as a visual signal on monitors. If there is a trial error this may lead to an attempt of trying different relaxation techniques like breathing in and out, this is to reduce an individual's level of their signal. As a person relaxes more this leads to slow rate of a person's blood pressure, this may be shown by having a lower signal on a monitor. Over time a person may learn to recognise their signs and tensions which may make it easier to control. When a person recognises their signs, it will give them easier control over their signs in order to help them improve their relaxation and remove their stress. M2: Different perspectives can be used to manage Andy's behaviours separately such as his self- harming and his ptsd. The cognitive perspective can help Andy overcome his PTSD of his road traffic accident. This perspective will use techniques such as helping Andy to relax, to then make an anxiety hierarchy to help him spread out his ptsd symptoms. They will then produce images of previous accidents which will then try and stimulate Andy to become relaxed with seeing previous traumas. The cognitive perspective will help change the way Andy sees himself in a traumatic situation that often triggers his symptoms, the perspective will help Andy recognise that the event will not happen again. The biological perspective will also help Andy overcome his self-harming and PTSD by prescribing drugs to help him manage his conditions. By having psychiatrists understand Andy's behaviours when in traumatic situations or areas will allow professionals to prescribe the right drugs to prevent symptoms from happening and providing relaxation techniques. Drugs such as morphine may help to prevent the symptoms of ptsd as it helps to calm nerves and prevent high blood pressure. By also using biofeedback to prevent excessive activity happening around the brain. Biofeedback prevents stress related disorders that affect the way the body works, by having biofeedback it helps to change the way the aspects in the body works. There are different perspectives that can be used to manage Keira's behaviours. This may include the humanistic perspective which will help Keira by having person centred counselling which will put Keira at the top of her treatment, and will shift the focus towards her. This perspective will help Keira recognise the different values of her behaviours and beliefs that may be in the way of her living a healthier and happier life that is free from any stress. The therapist or counsellor will always give positive regards to help the patient like Keira to feel safe within their relationship. By getting Keira to express her negative feelings that lean towards her behaviour without feeling judged, the counsellor will then reflect on Keira's concerns such as her addiction to pain killers following her surgery. The psychodynamic perspective may also be used to manage Keira's behaviours because it may help to uncover Keira's how her id impulses affect the ego and superego and how the tend to leak out symptoms of behaviours. By unravelling the different processes that may be involved with certain material that is affecting behaviour. By understanding how the affect of her surgery lead to her becoming addicted to pain killers. P4: Contribution of psychological perspectives in treatment of behaviours Interventions; use of perspectives: There are different perspectives that could help to treat depression. This includes the cognitive perspective: in which Piagets belief is that thoughts cause behaviours. They may use different treatment to manage depression such as focusing on the individual's thoughts and how they may influence individuals' behaviours. Behaviourist perspective; will also use treatment to manage depression such as creating different scenarios for the person to receive different amounts of positive reinforcements. Psychodynamic perspective can also support individuals by providing treatment such as making different parts of unconscious and conscious mind to help make the root of depressions. They look at the problem behaviours may be caused by such materials that are stored in the unconscious mind, they will look at the early childhood stages. The biological perspective shows how there are difficult behaviours which show the structure of the brain and body. They will look at being able to bring back the balance of brain chemicals to help relieve a person's symptoms of depression. Therapeutic practices: There are different reasons why some people may attend therapy. This may include when individuals come across issues that may make it harder for them to function. This may include depression when it becomes difficult for them getting out of bed because they are swallowed by anxiety. They may also attend therapy due to being unable to cope with bereavement, they may go to therapy to find strategic ways to deal with bereavement symptoms like depression and anxiety. Therapies may also lead to a change in self-concept and a better self-esteem. Therapies work by giving clients a chance to recognise their behaviours that may be blocking their happiness and wellbeing. To allow therapies to work they may put different methods in place to treat issues were discussed before. For example, behavioural methods include how a person's behaviour may change in order to prevent them from demonstrating behaviours that may make them feel sad or that could lead to punishment. The CBT may also enable people to think differently in which their results may be different and could lead to positive feelings/behaviours that will help people to feel happier and more at peace. Types of therapy: Group therapy: This type of therapy helps individuals to develop their social skills and their self- knowledge. By helping individuals recognise their own behaviour which could be unhelpful. Group therapies are limited with around 6 members with an experienced practitioner that may be in charge with the whole group. There may also be different impressions that we make due to how other people see us for example (AA) Alcoholics Anonymous. Family Therapy: This therapy also includes how we try and understand ourselves and other people through interaction. Family members may also attend different sessions with a professionally trained family therapist. The purpose of family therapy is to find out different way's family members may relate to another, the different dynamics of families. Therapists may also help to analyse family relationships such as giving family members the chance to relate to each other members differently. Addiction therapy: There are also a different range of factors that become clear about different destructive natures of addictive behaviours that may conclude to behaviour issues. Addiction Therapy may also give advice and treatment to individuals for their physical health, this is most likely used by addictions. To help individuals recognise their triggers in which the cognitive therapy may also be used which helps to look promptly at their consequences. Psychological therapy may be used to help deal with underlying issues that may also be caught with addiction. Addiction therapy may also be extended to support families to help them. Behaviour modification programmes: This programme may also relate to the different techniques of operant conditioning (Pavlov). There are positive reinforcements like 'stars on star charts' or food that is used whenever a patient showed desired behaviour. There is a success story such as how a woman who suffers from schizophrenia had not spoke for 19 years, she was reinforce to talk by giving the women chewing gum for whenever she spoke, and after 6 weeks she managed to speak fluently and promptly. Ethical issues of therapy: Ethics are important when dealing with therapy because to help to change a person's behaviour, this may be done ethically. A person should never be forced to receive treatment in which they should give informed consent first. Therapists may also refuse to give treatment to a person who was brought to the by family, relative or a partner. For example; Homosexual people were to be treated by aversion therapy which was to cure individuals off their homosexuality. Also, therapy should never be used to cause harm to individuals. M2: There are reasons for therapy behind Andy, this may include helping Andy to overcome difficult situations in which he may be unable to control his symptoms. Andy may attend therapy to help him in case some of his conditions cause him to being unable to function daily. If Andy's symptoms lead to him being unable to keep up to date with daily tasks he may attend therapy to help him reduce his issues. Therapy would work for Andy because of how his conditions have led to further struggles such as ptsd and self-harming. Andy may see a psychiatrist to help him control his self-harming moods. The therapist will talk to him and allow Andy to express his feelings. The group therapy will work for Andy by giving him a chance to express how he is feeling with others whom may relate to him. Andy would be able to talk to others about his behaviours and symptoms he often experiences, this may also help him improve his social skills with other people that relate to him. Family therapy can help Andy find different ways in which he can relate to his family members, this may also help him feel more comfortable talking about his issues around his family or close relatives. By having members of his family, he can relate to this will help improve his self-confidence when expressing himself. Having family members that he can talk to will help him feel more at ease when experiencing his symptoms, as he won't have to feel judged or embarrassed. Andy may also use the addiction therapy to get proper advice and the different treatments he could get to treat his obsessive self-harming. This therapy will help Andy look at possible triggers that could set him off to self-harm and find ways to cope with this situation, while finding different techniques to deal with underlining issues that could be mixed up with his addiction. The behaviour modification programme may also be used to understand different operant conditions. For example, by getting Andy to go to the same place where his road traffic accident happened, this may then influence him and persuade him to overcome this situation by realising this may never happen again. This modifies Andy's behaviour to the road traffic accident and helps understand the influence of going back to the same environment where it happened. When dealing with Andy's behaviour there would need to be considerations of the ethical issues that may occur when treating Andy, for example if Andy was brought in by family members for treatments therapists may refuse to give treatment to him due to having no informed consent from himself. This could lead to lack of treatment and may take longer for Andy to overcome his behaviours. M2: Keira: There may also be reasons why Keira has therapy, this includes finding different coping strategies and ways to deal with her behaviour symptoms. Therapy may be a way for Keira to cope with symptoms, this may also include finding ways to change her self-concept and improve her self-esteem. Therapy has its own ways of working for Keira, this includes helping Keira find out about her symptoms and what could be triggering these symptoms and behaviours. Group therapy can be used to treat Keira's behaviours. D1: A positive impact of the behaviourist perspective is that most behaviour is learnt so being able to understand the main impact of learning is a target to understanding behaviour. The persptive helps to understand human behaviour due to only observing quantifiable behaviour for example; how many times a door is opened and closed. This perspective is understood through research done in a lab to understand how people learn, for example the high level of variables. Behaviours that have been researched and studied had scientific creditability by making sure behaviour is measured by the use of objectivity and making behaviour influence development. A positive of the humanistic perspective is the belief that it supports individuals in their ideas and gives them the intention of relief. The perspective helps by promoting self-fulfilment and individuals' choice. By giving people a chance to believe that they are still a normal human being no matter their behaviour. The perspective aims to focus on the positive side and free will that helps to lead to changes, this is why individuals will have the opportunity to make their own choices and have the chance to decide for themselves. The perspective also aims to focus on the individual as a whole person instead of just bits about them e.g. their characteristics or genetics in which they are there to hold a person's traits. For example, Maslow's hierarchy of needs may also demonstrate this; this is because his hierarchy shows the different stages a person goes through to pass to the next step and reach the top of their hierarchy to become the best they can be. However, there are some negatives this perspective demonstrates such as how it made lead to individuals becoming frustrated of the expectations the perspective wants and may be too much for the person. This is because a person may feel stressed with the fact that they have to think on their own and use their thoughts and minds more, as they may have no one to support them and explain to them on why they feel that way. The perspective may also seem bias in some people's views due to the fact that it adapts to a specific culture. Many people may go against the perspective if they end up feeling uncomfortable. The humanistic perspective may also help individuals to understand the way they are feeling such as explaining Andy behaviour. This is because the perspective may show that Andy is angry with the loss of his partner, and with the thought that he has to find ways to express himself on his own and think for himself may frustrate him. Andy suffers from PTSD and the perspective may help understand this such as how it leads to high blood pressure and stress levels, he may feel the pressure of all his thoughts crashing into his mind. This could then help manage Andys behaviour and allow him to administrate his own emotions. This may help Andy to express himself without actually self-harming. As Andy lost his partner this may make it difficult to manage and make progress. The perspective can also be helpful when understanding Keira's behaviours such as her addiction to pain killers as she may be unaware of other ways to cope with her pain due to how long she was in hospital and looked after. She may be unaware of ways to look after herself. So using Maslow's hierarchy this can help Keira see her true self and try to help her overcome her struggle with herself image, by following the hierarchy stages to help her achieve high. Keira may struggle due to her circadian rhythms such as being unable to sleep.