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introduced from 1382 to deal with challenges to Church beliefs. Forest Laws - banned hunting / collection of firewood / grazing of animals in forests; heavy punishments included blinding and execution for repeat offence. Reason for change: to protect William's hunting which he loved. Seen as unfair 'social crime' Wergild abolished; replaced by payment to the King. Nature of law enforcement and punishment Trial by Ordeal Trial by cold water Trial by hot water Trial by consecrated bread haf Trial by combat Saxon period, c.1000 - 1066. *Early-Saxon Blood Feud - victim's family took revenge - replaced by following punishments. • Wergild - paid to victim's family; amount varied according to importance victim; types and extent of damage done. • Fines *Corporal punishment - stocks, pillory, whipping, maiming •Capital punishment - hanging *NOT prison Normans, 1066 - c.1200, continuity and change. *Wergild abolished Reason for change: Norman harshness and need for deterrent as a small minority. Retribution and deterrent overwhelmingly main purposes. Key Characteristics If the accused sank below the water then he was innocent, if he was guilty, he would float because God had rejected him. The accused picked up a red-hot weight and walked three paces with Trial by hot iron it. The hand was bandaged and unwrapped three days later. If the wound was clean, then she was found innocent, The accused put his hand into boiling water to pick up an object. The hand/arm was bandaged and unwrapped three days later. If the wound was clean, then he was found innocent. An accused priest prayed he would choke on holy bread if he lied. He was found to be guilty if he choked. Norman addition - two individuals fought in single combat and the winner of the fight was proclaimed to be right. Later medieval period law enforcement c1200-c1500 1166: creation of Assize of Clarendon were Royal judges tried more serious crimes. Courts and prisons established for those awaiting trials. Extension of royal control and gave fast and clear verdicts. 1215: abolition by the Pope of trial by ordeal and the introduction of trial by jury. 1190: Coroners appointed to investigate suspicious deaths 1361: Justices of the Peace - centrally appointed local judges (magistrates) Case study-Influence of the Church Importance of Church/religion in all areas of life (and death) •Christian religion massively influential in all areas of life and crime, etc. •Society: profound belief in God; massive wealth and influence of Church; tension between Church and government (Thomas Becket - Church Courts) *Crimes: Religious influence on moral crimes e.g. drunkenness, adultery, failure to attend church; Heresy - crimes against Church beliefs especially after 1382. •Policing: Sanctuary linked to concept of mercy. Certain holy places left the criminal immune from arrest: had 40 days to decide whether to stand trial or go into exile. •Trials: Oaths to 'prove' honesty of accused / witnesses / jury; Trial by Ordeal - 'God decides' until abolished in 1215; development of 'Church Courts' to try clergy: •The so-called 'Benefit of the Clergy' allowed those connected to the Church (or capable of reciting the 'neck verse') to be tried by Church Courts but sentences more lenient and excluded capital punishment. •Punishment: mercy, especially in relation to crimes committed by the clergy. Crime & Punishment Medieval period c1000-c1500 William I (image to the right) - Feudal System - Murdrum Fine - Trial by combat - Castles Harrying of the North 100,000 starved to death 1069-1070 THES Influence of the monarchy Henry II - English common law - Attempted to deal with lenient church courts -1166 Assize of Clarendon - transfer power from barons to royal judges Attitudes to society Agricultural: vast majority lived in small villages. Massive importance of community in policing, trials and public punishment. Growth of towns during Middle Ages reduced effectiveness of community. Importance of religion. Development of concept of 'social crime' under Normans. Unfair 'crime', e.g. Forest Laws. Saxons - slow growth of royal power. Normans - increased harshness of laws and punishments. Later Middle Ages: Norman/Saxon divisions faded; development of government institutions seen in courts / coroners, etc. Crimes, Punishments & Law Enforcement Key Terms Key term Heresy Treason Bloody Code Transportation Vagabond Witchcraft Excommunicate Smuggling Town Constables Night Watchmen Definition Crime against the Church and an offence to God. Challenge to the authority of the ruler. Connected with heresy. Harsh attitude to law making - 50 capital crimes by 1688. Being sent away from England to serve a period of punishment in a colony abroad. Unemployed and homeless person who had to leave his/her existing village in search of a job. Believed to have made a pact with the devil in return for special or magical powers which included flying. Ejected from the Catholic Church. The Pope excommunicated Elizabeth I in 1570. illegal transportation of goods such as brandy, tea and silk. Employed by the town authorities and had some powers to arrest. Work is overseen by the town constable and patrolled local area between 10pm and dawn. Religious and social changing definitions of crime Religion became more volatile and dangerous after Henry VIII broke from Rome to create his own Church of England in the 1530s. Henry VIII ordered 81 executions for heresy and Mary I ordered 283 executions for heresy! However, some people took the opportunity to recant. (Making a public statement that you have changed your beliefs) Social changes occurred because there was a growing population, falling wages, and rising food prices which meant that greater number of people left their villages in search of jobs. Example - Vagrancy Act of 1547 - an able bodied vagabond, who was without work for more than three days, was to be branded with the letter V and sold as a slave for two years. (Smuggling, Enclosure & Witchcraft) Political changing definitions of crime After the English Civil War and Charles I's execution, Oliver Cromwell took the title Lord Protector. He governed England from 1653 until 1658. During this period, some activities were made illegal (People should not drink and feast) Lord Protector Nature of law enforcement and punishment 1000-1500 Hue & Cry Town Constables introduced Night Watch introduced No thief takers Law enforcement was still left to local communities but early steps towards a professional paid police force. Town Constables were expected to turn in serious criminals to the courts and to break up fights. Night Watchmen were unpaid volunteers who also had to do their normal job to earn a living in the day. Witnesses must stop suspects Witnesses must stop suspects Some victims of crime resorted to using thief takers - paid a reward for catching a criminal. Purpose of punishment - still deterrence and retribution but new punishments - burning at the stake and transportation. Prisons early 1500s-holding area before a trial. 1556 - Bridewell prison in London - hard labour - poor people who had broken the law. Effective deterrent 1500-1700 Hue & Cry Role of Town Constables. expanded Role of Night Watch expanded Emergence of thief takers Continuity or Change? Continuity England wanted to establish permanent colonies in North America - convicts could be used to provide manpower Continuity Change Change Reasons to support transportation to North America 1603-1625 Change No effective prison system New ideas about punishment - rehabilitation (helping someone return to normal life and society after they have committed a crime) Case study-Gunpowder Plot 1605 Batch Robert Winter Christopher John Wright Wright Als Thomas Percy Guy Fawkes and his fellow conspirators had plotted to kill the King. Robert Catesby was actually the leader of the conspirators. Aimed to set off an explosion (36 barrels of gunpowder in a cellar under the House of Lords) that would kill the King at the state opening of Parliament on 5th Nov 1605. Guide Fawkes Elizabeth I died in 1603 (Pope excommunicated Elizabeth I) and so Catholics were hopeful that the new King, James I, who was married to a Catholic, would allow them more religious freedom (they were not allowed to hear mass under the reign of Elizabeth I). However, James I was prepared to introduce stricter anti-Catholic measures. 20th Oct 1605 - Lord Monteagle received a letter warning him not to attend the state opening of Parliament and the letter was passed to Robert Cecil, the King's spy master. Did the authorities know all about the plot in advance but allowed it to proceed for further Catholic persecution? - Roughly 1000 executed 1542-1716. Robert Cateby Plotters tortured using the rack (wooden frame used to stretch the body and forced limbs apart) •Hideous public execution Jan 1606 -hung, drawn and quartered. •Great publicity - including public execution, published drawings, etc. -Religious - massive change and division of Reformation; Protestant belief that Devil active in people's lives & James I's Demonologie, 1597. Impacts - Catholics banned from working in the legal profession and armed forces and not allowed to vote until 1829. Crime & Punishment Early modern period c1500-c1700 -Social-growing rich / poor divide; growing hostility to women: from 'wise women' to witches. -Political Civil War 1642- the 'world turned upside-down'. Case Study-Witchcraft and the law c1500-c1700 davinia Matthew Sophis Witchfinder Individuals - James I; Matthew Hopkins in Essex & East Anglia, 1645-1647 'Witch finder General.' 300 mainly women accused and 112 executed by hanging. Key Acts - 1542 Witchcraft Act; 1563 Act against Conjurations; 1604 Witchcraft Act. Decline in accusations of witchcraft after 1660s linked to rise in scientific ideas - 1660 Royal Society formed in London and 1662 awarded a royal charter by Charles II. Some rural communities continued to believe in witchcraft. The last recorded execution for witchcraft in England was in 1716. Crimes, Punishments & Law Enforcement Key Terms Key term Highway robbery Decriminalisation Martyr Trade Union Home secretary Hard Labour Reform Rehabilitation Robert Peel Inhumane Definition Threatening or attacking travellers to hand over possessions. No longer considered a crime - eg witchcraft 1736 A person who suffers for their beliefs and, often is admired. Organisation that represents workers to protect their rights. Government minister in charge of law and order. Hard, boring work in prison eg treadwheel. Convict changes for the better' no longer a threat. Helping someone return to normal life and society. Prime Minister 1834-35 and 1841-46-set up the Met. Cruel, without compassion. Political and social changing definitions of crime Rapid population growth and urbanisation. Smuggling increased compared to c1500-c1700 (cloth, wine and spirits were taxed) and development of large smuggler gangs- eg Hawkhurst Gang (Kent) controlled. long stretches of the south coast. SOCIAL crime - did the government create this crime by introducing and extending import duties? Highway robbery increased in 1700s (few banks, no cheques or debit cards, isolated country roads and more travel on improved roads) but decreased in 1800s (1772 - death penalty, banking system & mounted patrols). Poaching continued to be a widespread crime - rise in gangs. 1723 Black Act -capital offence but viewed as unfair as only rich could hunt. 1823 Black Act repealed. Tolpuddle Martyrs 1834 Dorset George Loveless and five others arrested for 'administrating an illegal oath." However, real reason was to stop their political activities - complained of their low wages (6 shillings compared to average of 10 shillings per week). Sentenced to 7 years' transportation to Australia. Mass protest in London - 100,000 and petition presented to Parliament - 200,000. Pardoned 4 years welcome. later and they received a 'hero's PUDDLE MARTYRS Nature of law enforcement and punishment Law continued to be enforced using constables, watchmen and part time soldiers. Bow Street Runners 1748- crime fighting team by the Chief Magistrate London, Henry Fielding. Volunteers attended crime scenes and detected criminals. Thief takers appointed as principal officers. At first charged fees and collected rewards from victims but by 1785 paid by the government - first modern detective force. Outraged by conditions in the Bedfordshire county gaol 1829 - England's first professional police in London - Met- uniformed, 17 districts with their own police division with 4 inspectors & 144 constables. 1856 Police Act-forced the country to set up local police forces. 1878- CID set up - 200 detectives - tried to identify Jack the Ripper. John Howard 1774-campaigns for prisoners to be released once served sentence 1777 published The State of Prisons in England and Wales Criminals only change if reasonable standard of living in prison Recommends clean, decent food and water, private cells & useful work Transportation to Australia 1770-1868 Humane alternative to the death penalty for petty crimes. 160,000 transported to Australia and 1/6 were women. Transportation was an alternative to building new prisons. Prisoners would help to populate the new colony- Britain secure its ownership. Elizabeth Fry Charity work from 18-poor, sick and prisoners 1813 visits Newgate - women & children living alongside dangerous prisoners. Teaches sewing and Bible classes 1817- helps set up ARFP at Newgate Female wardens work at female prisons End of public executions 1868 Crowds that came to watch were often drunk and disorderly. For most spectators, public executions were a fun spectacle. Provided opportunities for pickpocketing and prostitution. Reformers argued public execution was inhumane, and that those condemned to death should have more dignity during their execution. Case study-Pentonville Prison London Separate System 1842 Built as a prototype where the 'separate system' could be tested. Prisoners were kept apart as much as possible. They lived in separate cells up to 23hrs a day. Purpose - provide prisoners with an opportunity for individual improvement - solitude to encourage reform via religious faith and self-reflection - prisoners not influenced by other criminals - deterrence - ensure retribution. Building had 5 wings with a base for staff in the central area. The prison could accommodate 520 prisoners. The cells had a floor area of just 4m by 2m - small high window to allow natural daylight and window had thick glass fixed with iron bars. Cells featured some of the most up to date domestic technology - heating system - piped water and small basin & toilet - mechanical ventilation system - no need for prisoners to leave their cells. Thick building walls -no communication between prisoners. At first, prisoners worked in their cells - isolation - boring and repetitive eg oakum picking. Short period of exercise but forced to wear masks and sat in individual cubicles in the chapel Impact - mental illness - depression, psychosis and even suicide. Prison reformers including Elizabeth Fry concerned about purpose and design of Pentonville. Increasingly harsh treatment of prisoners late 1800s continued. (1865 Prisons Act - strict regime of punishment via hard labour - 12hrs physically demanding hard work, boring & bland diet and wooden board beds) Crime & Punishment 18th & 19th centuries Case Study-Reforms of Robert Peel - Prime Minister 1834-35 and later 1841-46 (previous home secretary 1822) - Well - informed and open to new ideas - 1823 Gaols Act: prisoners receive regular visits from prison chaplain, gaolers to be paid, female wardens for female prisoners & prisoners not to be held in chains or irons. - Metropolitan police force formed 1829. (1826 economic downturn) Similar standards of policing across London. Police officers had to be at least 5'7" tall and in good health. Uniform and equipment provided - blue tail coat and top hat, truncheon, handcuffs and wooden rattle. Faced hostile attitude from the public and the press. 2,800 recruits signed up but only 600 retained for a year or more. Fears of oppression - people thought police would limit their individual freedoms, worried of a military style presence and increased taxes. Peel attempted to reduce opposition via gaining public approval of police actions, use of physical force when persuasion, advice and warning insufficient and demonstrating impartial service to the law. Was Peel a humanitarian? Or did he set up a more effective punishment system? Crimes, Punishments & Law Enforcement Key Terms Key term Hate crime Homophobic Injunction Police community support officer Vigilance Active citizenship Abolished Age of criminal responsibility Liberal Diminished responsibility Definition POLICE Crime motivated by prejudice against victim's race, gender, disability or sexual orientation. Prejudiced against people who are gay. Court order which forbids a particular action or behaviour. Works with police officers and have some, but all, of their responsibilities. Careful watch for danger or possible criminal activity. People taking an active role in their community in order to improve it. Banned or made illegal. Age at which a person is judged to be mature enough to understand their actions. Can be prosecuted. Open to new ideas Not being fully in control of your actions, eg mental illness. Political and social changing definitions of crime examples The Guardian Opinions 1960s-changing social attitudes - sexual revolution. 1967 Sexual Offences Act - decriminalised homosexuality for men aged over 21. 2005 Criminal Justice Act - severe sentences for homophobic crime. 1968 Race Relations Act- illegal to refuse jobs, housing or public services to anyone based on their race/ethnicity. Increasing immigration - need to define a new crime. 1976 Domestic Violence Act-victims could ask for an injunction against a violent partner. 1991 - rape in marriage recognised. 2014-controlling behaviour towards a partner became a crime. 1967 Abortion Act - abortion made legal-child was going to have serious disabilities or mother was at risk. 1968-legal limit was 28 weeks. New opportunities for old crimes Older crimes that are carried out using different means: Terrorism - violence and fear to publicise a political cause. People - trafficking - people from poor countries - UK - forced to work. Cybercrime - internet or other digital technology. Fraud - impersonating individual/business to make illegal money. Copyright theft illegal downloads of music, games and films. Extortion-making someone pay money via threats or blackmail. ← R SCAM U LE DANG DAN R L Nature of law enforcement 1900 - every area across Britain had its own police force BUT 200 separate forces had no central records and rarely shared information. 1920s - women recruited to join the police force. 1947 Police Training College. Breathalysers, CCTV, mass video surveillance and biometric screening - preventing crime. Improved communications, forensic science, data management and improved computer software - solving crime. Fraud squad - 1946 in London - crime in business and the stock market. Specialist drug-trade units - aim to disrupt the trade with raids on buildings where dealers store and supply drugs. Dog handling units-sniff out drugs, find explosives, track and catch criminals and search for missing persons. Special Branch - MI5-terrorism. Science & Technology Advancement 1901 - Fingerprint Branch set up at the Met. Different blood types discovered. 1930s-police cars now common and two way radios installed. 999 emergency number introduced. 1980-police national computer is launched 25 million individuals. 1988 - first murder convictions based on DNA samples from the victim & accused. Changes in punishment 1995 - National DNA Database set up Attitudes towards Neighbourhood Watch 1982 - Conservative govt- active citizenship - voluntary Local committee of people - raise awareness about crime - encourage neighbours to keep an eye on each others' property. Effective at making people feel safe. Controversial executions - Timothy Evans 1950-hanged for murdering his wife and baby. Later evidence proved they had been killed by a serial killer and Evans was innocent. Huge public outcry at the miscarriage of justice. Does not exist in the areas with high crime rates - only in wealthier areas. Mostly older people who may be nosy neighbours! It is the job of the police. End of the death penalty - Homicide Act 1957 restricted the death penalty to the most serious cases of murder (capital murders- eg committing two murders on different occasions) Changes in the prison system - use of prisons has continued to increase from 1900. Currently, reoffending rates are very high and it costs £40,000 per prisoner per year. 1896- mentally ill prisoners treated separately. Case study-Conscientious objectors in the First and Second World Wars Young offenders - Kent Borstal 1902- prison for boys only to ensure young convicts kept away from older criminals. YOU MADE ME LOVESEA YOU! Utf CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORS! CONSCIENCRA PROINDE WITHWORDS OR GUNS- THEME SONGS GOING TO WIN THE HE WAR BY SINGING HUNG! 1916 - Military Service Act introduced conscription for the first time. All unmarried men aged 18-41 were called up to join the armed forces. Later extended in May 1916 to all married men aged 18-41 and in 1918 the upper age limit was raised to 51. Some men refused to fight, because they said their conscience would not allow it - COS. Religious beliefs - political reasons - pacifists - absolutists. Some men refused to carry weapons but were prepared to support the war effort eg stretcher bearer, ambulance driver and helping distribute food supplies. Nearly 20,000 men had to appear before a special court and judge to make their conscience request but the tribunals were not very fair. Many absolutists were imprisoned - solitary confinement and some COS were sent to fight in France. Small number were sentenced to death if refused to fight but the PM intervened and reduced the punishment to 10yrs in prison. Casualty rates very high for oldiers, refusing to fight presented as 'unmanly' and COs unfairly shirking their responsibilities. WW2 - COs offered alternative occupations such as farm work and prison only used as last resort. Peace Pledge Union posted anti-war posters were put on trial but the judge dismissed their case. Public opinion was still hostile - some COS verbally abused in public. Crime & Punishment C1900-present recent times Case Study - Derek Bentley and the abolition of capital punishment 1953 -Derek Bentley and Christopher Craig convicted of the murder of PC Sidney Miles, a policeman who was shot during an attempted burglary. Bentley (18) was executed in 1953 because Craig was too young (16). -The case was controversial - increase of people questioning the death penalty. -Many MPs at the time. Craig fired the gun. Prosecution - Bentley shouted "let him have it" - made him jointly responsible. Defence - could mean "let the policeman have the gun" and Bentley had a learning disability - mental age of 10. Jury find both guilty but recommend mercy for Bentley. Judge sentences Bentley to death by hanging and Craig to long prison term. Home secretary David Fye declared at the time of the trial "there is no possibility of an innocent man being hanged in this country." Death sentence had been carried out unfortunately before MPs could debate the motion. Youth Justice Reforms 1940s - graduated system of prison depending believed Bentley should not on the seriousness of the crime. be hanged. -Bentley eventually pardoned in 1993. 1965-death penalty for murder suspended. 1969-this change made permanent. Crimes, Punishments & Law Enforcement Key Terms Key term Watch committee Memoir Commissioner Charles Warren Sanitation Poor relief Pogrom Anarchy Socialist Capitalist Gin palace Definition Local politicians monitor the work of police forces. Individual's account of his/her life - eg diary. Metropolitan Police Commissioner from1886 Public health conditions - running water & sewerage systems. System of giving benefits to the poor. Russian word describing a government-supported attack on Jews. Political movement that opposes all forms of organised government. Someone who believes that poor people would get a better deal if the govt took over important industries and services. Someone who believes individuals should be free to own property and business and make a profit. Richly decorated gas-lit shop selling gin across a counter. Context: Policing the nation THE RIOT IN TRAFALGAR SQUARE Many different police forces at this time - exception was the Met which reported directly to the Home Secretary, who also appointed the head of the force. By 1885 - only over 13,000 policemen in the Met among a population of over 5 million! CID (Criminal Investigation Department) set up 1878 with 216 officers (following a series of scandals and corruption) however did not solve Ripper investigation. Sir Charles Warren - appointed as MPC 1886. He called in the army to control the protestors in Trafalgar Square on Bloody Sunday. Many disliked him-bully? Forced out as Commissioner after Ripper murders. Useful sources for investigating police reports from individual police stations and record of court cases. Local context of Whitechapel One of London's poorest districts - gangs ruling its streets. Up to 1000 homeless out of a population of 30,000. Londoners shared the district with recent Irish and Jewish Eastern European immigrants. Poor housing, overcrowding (rookeries - overcrowded slum area in which houses were divided into apartments & up to 30 people in one apartment and over 200 lodging houses) and unemployment were commonplace in Whitechapel. Attempts to improve conditions included building new housing and providing orphanages. These solutions existed alongside traditional responses to poverty, such as the workhouses. Model housing - the Peabody Estate - maze of narrow courtyards filled with cramped houses replaced with 11 new blocks of flats - paid for by wealthy American George Peabody. Opened in 1881 and provided 286 flats. Weekly rents included 3 shillings (15p) for a one room flat. Tensions in Whitechapel POLICE NEWS By the 1880s-Irish and Jewish Eastern European immigrants. Fears immigrants held dangerous political views. Immigration seemed to be a threat to local people's options for housing and jobs. Immigrant groups were likely to be stereotyped as dangerous criminals. Dynamite Sunday - 24 Jan 1885 - Fenians (Catholic Irish nationalists who demanded freedom from UK rule) launched attacks in London - London Bridge, House of Commons & Tower of London. Jewish settlers widely resented by the local population - Jews seemed to find employment quickly and they could work on Sundays as their holy day is a Saturday. Some began to feel that East London had become a refuge for other nations' terrorists - anarchists and socialists. Beat constable's shift Whitechapel Marched to his beat (area he was to patrol) Questioning and stopping people at night Economic depression and poverty - to find out what they were up to unpopular with the public Meet up with beat sergeant at certain times Fined or dismissed if away from his beat H Division Demonstrated in a negative light- attacked by violent gangs Prostitution - sensitive police management as it was not illegal but viewed as a social problem. Abortions were common due to no contraception and police turned a blind eye to these 'back street' abortions. Protection rackets - immigrant gangs demanded protection money from small business owners. H Division made no attempt to shut down gangs. Run by a superintendent and a chief inspector Boring and low paid but dangerous work 15 detectives assigned from CID Policing Whitechapel 27 inspectors,37 sergeants and 500 ordinary officers Alcohol violence further crime. Very strong drink was affordable for all but the very poor and pubs on every corner. Opium dens- opium smoked. Social workers? Police hosted soup kitchens and stopped runaway children. Public felt the police were too concerned with promoting good manners at the expense of keeping them safe. Jack the Ripper murders 1888 1888-5 women murdered in and around Whitechapel. Mary Ann Nichols, found in Buck's Row 31st August, Annie Chapman, found in the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street, Spitalfields 8th September, Elizabeth Stride, found in Berners Street 30th September, Catherine Eddowes, found in Mitre Square, Aldgate, also 30th September and Mary Jane Kelly, found inside 13 Miller's Court, Spitalfields 9th November. All killed by the same person 'Jack the Ripper.' Inspector Frederick Abberline and his CID team were assigned to the case by the Met and assisted with the uniformed men of H division. Task was difficult as more than 300 letters and postcards sent to them and/or local newspapers by men claiming to be the murderer. PC Alfred Long discovered an important clue after Catherine Eddowes murder - piece of her apron, smeared with blood and faeces and in the alleyway behind 'The Juwes are the men that will not be blamed for nothing' scrawled in chalk on the wall. Commissioner Warren ordered the message to be washed off before it could be photographed - apparently fearing a backlash against the Jewish community OR Warren did not want to be beaten to the capture of a serial killer by a rival police force - Eddowes was killed inside the boundaries of the City of London police force NOT the Met. Bitter rivalry between these two forces was one of the biggest problems of the investigation. Policing methods included; •Following up on direct leads - suggestion Bethnal Green gang was to blame. •Arranging post mortems - local doctor, Rees Llewellyn, suggested that the cut marks on some of the victims indicated the killer was left-handed and must have some knowledge of anatomy and dissection - inquiries made at slaughterhouses and hospitals. •Following up on journalists' theories - Manchester Guardian claimed the killer was a local man nicknamed 'Leather Apron.' John Pizer ('Leather Apron') had solid alibis. Whitechapel, c1870-c1900: crime, policing and the inner city Jack the Ripper murders 1888 - policing methods and improvements to 1900 Following up on clues found with victims - visited pawnbrokers and jewellers to find the rings missing from Annie Chapman's fingers. *Visiting lunatic asylums - assumed Ripper was insane and could have escaped from an asylum. •Following up on coroners' reports - Dr Wynne Baxter stated the Ripper must have. been a surgeon. *Interviewing witnesses - Elizabeth Long claimed to have seen a man talking to Annie Chapman a few minutes before she died but police ignored her evidence because it conflicted with the doctor's report about the time of death. Questioned more than 2000 witnesses. *Setting up soup kitchens - police offered a hot meal to encourage witnesses to come forward as the Met not allowed to offer money as a reward. •House to house searches *80,000 leaflets/police notices •76 butchers and slaughterhouse workers were questioned along with hospital and veterinary surgeons. .Bizarre - men dressed as prostitutes. •Experimented with bloodhounds. Lack of forensic science & Bertillon System