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is a country with various ethnicities and cultures within its borders. Examples: The United States, russia, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq, afghanistan, nigeria An autonomous or semi autonomous region is a location within a state that is given authority to govern independently from the national government Examples: Native American Reservations and Tribal Lands TLDR: A state has defined territory, permanent populations, government, sovereignty, and recognition from other states; A nation is a group of people with a common identity; A nation-state is when a state has mostly one nation in it; Stateless nations are nations without a state to occupy; A multi state nation consists of a nation of people that live in multiple states; A multinational state is a country with various ethnicities and cultures/nations; An autonomous or semi autonomous region is a place that can govern itself, without the national government; 4.2-Political Processes Key Concepts Sovereignty- A state's authority to control its territory and govern itself Nation-State- The territory occupied by a particular nation of people is the same as the recognized boundary of that state Self-Determination- The right of all people to govern themselves. Usually a nation, ethnicity, or former colony wants to govern themselves and establish sovereignty over their own state; Oftentimes may result in independence movements or devolution Devolution-Due to centrifugal forces, power is shifted from the central government or administration to regional authorities which are usually reflective of nations What events have happened in the past that influence the modern map? Berlin conference (1884) • European powers gathered to divide up the continent of Africa and establish borders ● Europeans drew political boundaries for their own benefits without regard to tribal cultures and distributions O Over time this causes conflict and violence and impacted the development of African Countries and other colonies Colonialism and Imperialism The Treaty of Versailles (1920) This treaty was signed to end WWI. It redrew boundaries in Europe and Southwest Asia The German Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires were broken up and organized into individual states with the intention of creating nation-states This worked in some places and resulted in further divisions in others (specifically the Middle East). ● Establishment of Israel (1948) Palestine, a former british colony was established as the state of Israel after the Holocaust ● Self-determination for Arabs across Palestine rose and conflict has been one and off since the state was officially established Palestine are recognized as a stateless nation by many countries throughout the world Decolonization and Independence Movements (1945-1990) ● After the development of the United Nations and the end of WWII, the movement of decolonization began around the world Resistance to colonial power and political self-determination gained momentum and new countries were formed out of previous colonial empires • Throughout Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia and Latin america Fall of the Soviet Union (1991) ● The fall of communism and the Soviet Union ended the Cold War and led to the creation of newly independent states, and changed the world balance of power Eastern Europe was less influenced by the Soviet Union (Yugoslavia, East Germany, Poland, etc) New states Include: Ukraine, Estonia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, Moldova, and the 'Stans TLDR: Sovereignty is a state's ability to govern itself; Self-Determination is the right of all people to govern themselves; Devolution is the shift of power from the central government to the regional authorities; Berlin Conference is when the Europeans drew boundaries on Africa, literally not knowing anything about who was there; The Treaty of Versailles was signed to end WWI, it redrew european boundaries and ones in Southwest Asia; Establishment of Israel (1948) was when Palestine was established as the state of israel after the Holocaust; Decolonization and Independence movements (1945-1990) happened after the development of the UN and was the resistance to colonial power; Fall of the Soviet Union (1991) the fall of communism and ended the cold war which led to states drawing their boundaries; 4.3-Political Power and Territoriality Political Power and Territoriality Territoriality is the control and influence over a specific geographical area. It often includes aspects such as: ● Historic and cultural links Governments Economics Boundaries • Sovereignty ● Defense/Military ● Sometimes conflict ● Similarly political power is defined as control over land, people and resources, and doesn't necessarily correspond to a geographic area with defined boundaries. How is political power and territoriality expressed? Neocolonialism is the use of economic, political, cultural or other pressures in order to control or influence other countries • Semi-Perphery and Periphery countries Former African colonies are reliant on outside investments for economic security O Kenya- $3.8 billion dollar railroad built by a company owned by the chinese government, which crushed debt in kenya but gave the chinese control over the railroad ● Political influence-US Wars in the Middle East Shatter belts: Instability within a region that is geographically located between states with overlapping territoriality and political power ● Germany during the Cold War ● Balkan Peninsula of former Yugoslavia Formerly a part of The ottoman empire ■ Iron curtain Choke Points are strategic straits or canals of which are narrow, hard to pass through, and has competition for use ● This could be closed or blocked to stop sea traffic and strategically show political power or territoriality ● Essential to shipping oil, food, and consumer products around the world. TLDR:Territoriality is control over area, political power is control over resources; Neocolonialism is the use of pressures to control/influence lesser developed countries; Shatterbelts are unstable borders between states with overlapping powers; Choke points are tiny canals that can be cut off to show power; 4.4-Defining Political Boundaries Types of Political Boundaries Antecedent Borders that are established before there has been major settlement by people in a territory • Example: The 49th parallel that separates the US and Canada Subsequent ● ● ● Consequent Type of subsequent boundary- takes into account the existing cultural distribution of the people living in the territory and redevelops boundary lines to more closely align with cultural boundaries ● Borders that are drawn in areas that have been settled by people, typically die to changes that have occured over time Example: Boundaries in Europe have changed frequently throughout history usually in a response to a new empire, war, or political agreement. Example: The boundary between Nunavut and the rest of Canada - Drawn in 1999, established a province that coincided with indigenous groups Superimposed ● A border that is drawn over existing and accepted borders by an outside force Example: The Berlin Conference imposed arbitrary boundaries throughout the continent of Africa Relic Geometric ● Borders that are established on straight lines of latitude and longitude instead of physical or cultural boundaries ● Example: The Sykes-Picot agreement, Europeans split up the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire after WWI A border that no longer exists, but has left some imprint on the local culture or environmental geography ● Examples O Boundary between East Germany and West Germany during the cold war O The Iron Curtain O The Confederacy in the US TLDR: Antecedent boundaries are established before settlement; Subsequent boundaries are created after there are settlements; Consequent boundaries are a form of subsequent boundary that takes into account the people living there, their culture, etc; Superimposed boundaries are boundaries drawn by outside forces that are drawn over existing ones; Geometric boundaries are boundaries that go along with longitude and latitude; Relic boundaries are boundaries that no longer exist, but leave an impact on the land or people around them; 4.5-What causes conflict over boundaries? Identifying Boundaries Boundaries are defined, delimited, demarcated, and administered on land and in water. They are an expression of political power and territoriality. They are used to establish sovereignty and are subject to change and conflict. Boundaries sometimes correspond with the cultural or economic divisions. Defined - Countries legally define and agree to where borders are located through an agreement or treaty Delimited - Identifying the location of the defined boundaries on a map. Usually at the same time that boundaries are defined and done through legal designation Demarcated - Visible marking of the landscape with objects, such as fences or signs Administered - Legal management of the border through laws, immigrant regulation, documentation, and prosecution Maritime Boundaries Why do they matter? Trade and shipping routes ● Fishing rights ● Oil reserves Defense Landlocked countries are at a significant disadvantage Highly disputed, just like land boundaries The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas (1982) ● Territorial Sea O 12 nautical miles from the coastline O Compete sovereignty over the water and airspace O Permission of "innocent passage" of foreign ships EEZ (exclusive economic zone) O 200 nautical miles O A state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources such as fishing, whaling, as well as natural resources like natural gas, oil, and energy What happens when there are less than 400 nautical miles between EEZs?? Median Line Principle ● Drawing a boundary that is midway between two or more states' coasts TLDR: Boundaries are defined, delimited, demarcated, and administered; Defined means legally agreeing on it with surrounding countries; Delimited means identifying the boundaries on a map; Demarcated means visibly marking boundaries; Administered means legal management of boundaries; The UN convention of the law of the seas defines maritime boundaries as territorial sea and exclusive economic zones; Territorial sea is 12 nautical miles from the coastline, and the country has full sovereignty over it; Exclusive economic zones are 200 nautical miles from the coast, in which the state has rights over exploration and using resources; If the EEZS are not big enough they split 'em down the middle; 4.6- How do US states spatially organize the government? The census What is it? Done every ten years, as mandated by the constitution, the official population is counted as well as information such as age, race, and sex. What's it used for 1. Determining federal and state funding for planning and providing services and building/maintaining infrastructure a. Schools, roads, waste management, hospitals, libraries, public transportation etc. 2. Reapportioning the Congressional Map a. Process of reapportionment and redistricting in order to assure that each congressional district is roughly the same total population b. If the population in a specific congressional district DECREASES, they could LOSE their congressional seat. Conversely, if population INCREASES the ligation could GAIN a congressional district/congressional seat. Electoral Geography Reapportionment is the process in which the US House of Representatives seats are reallocated to different states, based off of population change 435 Congressional districts and US Representatives Electoral colleges are organizations that utilize the popular vote to then vote for the President. Loss of congressional seats means a loss of an Electoral College seat. You need 270 out of the 538 possible. There are 435 US Representatives, 100 senators and 3 representing Washington D.C Redistricting: The State's internal political boundaries that determine voting districts for the US House of Representatives and the state legislature. (A fancy way of saying redrawing the districts to reflect the census data) A voting district is a geographical term used by state and local governments to organize elections, that are drawn by state legislatures Requirements for Voting Districts Similar population size Contiguous- a single, unbroken shape ● Compact-Smooth rather than contorted boundaries and should cluster around a central core rather than dispersing outwards These rules are not always followed as I don't think that they are enforced, but don't quote me on that Gerrymandering: Redistricting for a political advantage, when the political party that controls a majority of seats in the state legislature draws political district boundaries to maintain or extend their political power ● Packing: Clustering like-minded voters in a single district, thereby allowing the other party to win the remaining districts Cracking: Dispersing like-minded voters among multiple districts in order to minimize their impact and prevent them from gaining a majority (Having the opposing party mixed in with, but not the majority, your party) ● Representative districts: The ideal, in which the voting districts are equal in population, contiguous, and compact. They are truly the representative of the people living in the district ● Results of Gerrymandering: Impacts election results at various scales (national, state, local) Are our elections truly representative? TLDR: The census is done every ten years, is mandated by the constitution, is the official population count (also takes info such as age, race, etc). It is used for determining federal and state funding, and for reapportioning the Congressional Map; Reapportionment is the process in which the US House of Representatives seats are reallocated to different states; There are 435 congressional districts and therefore that many US representatives; 100 senators 3 of which represent D.C; Redistricting is redrawing districts to match the Census; Voting districts must be similar sizes, a single unbroken shape, smooth boundaries and should cluster around a central area; Gerrymandering is redistricting for political advantage; Packing is clustering like minded voters in a single district; Cracking is having the opposing party mixed in, but not the majority of, your district; Representative districts are the ideal voting districts that are equal in population, and follow all the rules; So basically gerrymandering sucks and kinda rigs elections 4.7-Forms of Government Forms of Government Where is power held? Federal A style of government in which power is shared between central, regional, and local governments. Regional and local governments have autonomy and authority to administer their spaces in order to account for the needs of diverse groups. Power is diffused to state and local governments on multiple levels ● Multi national and geographically large local power helps balance the needs of a diverse population Substate County City/Local Unitary A style of government in which the power is located centrally and the purpose of regional or local units is to carry out policy. Regional and local political units exist, but often do not act independently to make laws of policy. The units are an extension of the central government. ● Very little political power outside of the central government. Limited diffusion of power. ● States are more likely geographically compact with less cultural differences and minority groups (generally) Federal Government Positives ● Reduction of conflict around specific issues because each sub-state can legislate differently O Death penalty or legalization of marijuana Local issues resolved more quickly by regional/local governments ● Negatives Slow to enact change O Amending the Constitution - 34 of states needed to ratify. That means 38 states have to agree Conflicts between national, state, and local governments can cause confusion and stall progress Unitary Government Positives Efficiency in the creation and implementation of laws All from one central authority O • Change happens quickly - only has to go through the central government Sense of unity ● ● Negatives ● More vulnerable to corruption or authoritarianism o May only serve the interests of the dominant group Central government may not be in touch with local issues, and therefore will be slower to respond to them TLDR: Federal government is shared power between central, regional, and local governments. Some positives are that they may reduce conflict around specific issues because sub states can legislate differently, local issues are resolved faster. However they are slow to enact change, and conflicts between the different layers of government may cause confusion and stall progress; Unitary Government is where the power is located centrally, where regional or local units just carry out policy. Some positives are that it is efficient in the creation of laws, change happens quickly, and there is a sense of unity. However, this form of government is more vulnerable to corruption, and the central government may not be in touch with local issues. 4.8-Defining Devolutionary Factors What factors lead to the devolution of states? Devolution is the process in which regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the central government ● Autonomy:Independence, freedom, self-governing ● NOT BALKANIZATION, but is a challenge to state sovereignty and destabilizes the central government Centrifugal Forces 1. Physical geography ● Regions that are separated from the central state due to physical features such as mountain ranges deserts or bodies of water ● Fragmented states like Indonesia or the Philippines Distance Decay: As the distance increases between two locations the quantity and quality of interactions decline (kinda like how the farther away you are from a city the worst cell service you get) ● 2. Ethnic Separatism ● People of a particular ethnicity in a multinational state identify more strongly with their ethnic group than as citizens of the state Many times a result of mistreatment or disparity between dominant ethnic group and a minority ethnic group within a state Ethnic separatism in china O Major ethnic group-55% Han Chinese O Tibetan Buddhists view themselves as culturally distinct from dominant China ■ Tibetan ethnicity and Religious Minority ■ Long history of resisting invasions by the British and Chinese ■ Dalai Lama, the leader of Tibetans has been exiled to India since 1959 3. Ethnic Cleansing ● State governments attack an ethnic group in an attempt to try to eliminate them through expulsion, imprisonment, or mass murder ● Similar to genocide → The Holocaust ● Ethnic Cleansing in China O Uyghurs are originally part of "East Turkistan", speak turkish, and are typically Muslims ■ Ethnic Separatism and infighting for sovereignty, the Uyghurs have turned to violent tactics ■ The whole group has been labeled as terrorist threats and many have been sent unwillingly to "re-education" centers 4. Terrorism • Organized violence aimed at government and civilian targets intended to create fear in order to accomplish political aims Most commonly utilized by non-government groups with no army, in order to achieve recognition or power ● Examples: Uyghurs in China, Palestinians in Israel, Basque ETA from 1959-2011 5. Economic or Social Problems ● Uneven development, different levels of economic activity/productivity, and conflict over the allocation of funding from the central level of government ● Social problems such as discrimination against a minority groups fuel devolutionary forces as well 6. Irredentism ● A majority ethnic group wants to claim a territory from a neighboring state due to a shared culture with the people residing across the border Reunification of multistate nations Examples: Russians in Ukraine and other former Soviet republics TLDR: Devolution is when regions within a state demand and gain political strength. Could be due to the following; Physical geography which causes Distance decay; Ethnic Separatism which is when people identify more strongly with their ethnic group that the state; Ethnic Cleansing is when the government attacks an ethnic group in an attempt to "eliminate them"; Terrorism, which is organized violence towards the government; Economic or social problems which is when a region inside a state could be benefited by going off on their own for money or social reasons; Irredentism is when another state wants to claim territory from another state because they share similar roots or just want to be mean; 4.9-Challenges to Sovereignty Review Sovereignty- The states authority to control its territory and govern itself Self-Determination- The right of all people to govern themselves. Usually a nation ethnicity or former colony wants to govern themselves Devolution-Due to centrifugal forces, power is shifted from the central government to other authorities that are typically more reflective of the nation Types of Political Entities: State; Nation; Nation-State; Stateless nation; Multi-State Nation, Multi-Nation State; Autonomous Regions Challenges to State Sovereignty 1. Devolution-States must share some power to autonomous regions or subnational political units in order to avoid conflict a. Examples: Catalonia, Basque, in Spain; Flanders, Wallonia in Belgium; Quebec, Nunavut In Canada; Arewa, Odudwa, Biafra in Nigeria b. Destabilization of the state through disagreement, disunity, and a desire for more autonomy c. When a state cannot resolve issues these devolutionary forces may result in a disintegration of a state i. Examples: Eritrea, South Sudan, East Timor, Soviet Union 2. Advancements in Communication Technology a. Time-space compression: The relative distance between places has been shrinking due to modern advancements in transportation and communication technology b. Constant connections result in: i. ii. iii. iv. V. Information and news stories are broadcasted throughout the world Access to information, knowledges and services Instant communication with large groups Propaganda and misinformation Increases devolutionary pressures and challenges at state sovereignty, leads to social movements 3. Supranational Organizations a. An alliance of three or more states that work together in pursuit of common goals Economic, Social, Cultural, Political, Military, or Environmental i. b. Typically regional in scale but there are some globalized like the United Nations Supranational Organizations 1. The United Nations 2. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 3. The European Union 4. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 5. The Arctic Council 6. The African Union 7. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) The Positives of Supranational Organizations a. Decrease conflict and promote cooperation between member states b. Environmental Sustainability The Arctic Council works together to research climate c. change, wildlife conservation, and ocean hearth. Economies of Scale Increased trade and bargaining power in order to make more money for the member nations i. Reduction of trade barriers embargoes and tariffs encouraging free trade d. Collective Defense → For military organizations, an attack against one Ally is considered an attack against all Allies The Negative Effects of Supranational Organizations a. Can challenge state sovereignty by limiting the economic or political actions of member states b. European Union i. ii. iii. iv. C. NATO i. ii. Open borders "Single Market"- Free trade, movement of goods, services, and money Common Currency- Euro (19/27 states) Environmental policy Memberships cost money No real equal participation of all members TLDR: Some challenges to State Sovereignty are the following; Devolution-States have to share some power to autonomous regions in order to avoid conflict; Advancement in communication technology causes Time-Space Compression and things get around quicker, whether good or bad; Supranational Organizations (SO) are an alliance of three or more states that work for common goals together; Some SOS are: The United Nations(UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), The European Union, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Arctic Council, the African Union, and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC); SOs decrease conflict and promote cooperation, provide environmental stability (Arctic Council), increase trade, and provide a collective defense; SOS also can change state sovereignty, and NATO memberships cost money, and not all members participate equally. 4.10-Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces Centripetal Forces-Characteristics that unify a country and provide stability like common language, ethnicity, and religion (Petal Flower → Bouquet → Marriage → Unification) Centrifugal Forces- Characteristics that divide a country and create instability, conflict and violence like multiple competing ethnicities, languages, or religions. ( -fugal sounds like a certain swear word that I'm not allowed to say at school) What are the results of centrifugal forces? Centrifugal forces may lead to: 1. Failed States Balkanization in Yugoslavia 2. Uneven Development a. Weak infrastructure? b. Economic success? Northern Nigeria or Flanders 3. Stateless nations and Ethnic nationalist or separatist movements a. Kurds, Basque, Palestinians Ultimately they can lead to the balkanization, evolution, or succession of one region away from the greater state. What are the results of centripetal forces? Centripetal forces may lead to: 1. Ethnonationalism: When the people of a country identify as having one common ethnicity, language, and religion which creates a sense of pride and ties them to the territory. a. Ability to 'unite against a common enemy' 2. Equitable infrastructure development 3. Cultural cohesion/unity/harmony/peace