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experiment • Dependent Variable ● What is studied or the measurement used. Confounding Variable - Focuses on the correlation w Inferred Correlation from Causation Correlational studies do not imply causation (What does this even mean?) How is correlation typically depicted? What type of graph? The most useful graph for displaying the relationship between two quantitative variables is a scatter plot. Many research projects are correlational studies because they investigate the relationships that may exist between variables. ● How do you determine mode, median, and mean? Mode: Most common number. Mean: The average (sum/divided by # of #s) Median: Middle number when you line up from smallest to largest. Know the different perspectives in psychology ● Biological Psychology: Understanding how brain and body physically creates thoughts and emotions Evolutionary: How natural election process caused genes to develop/ adapt What is the correlation thing ● Behavior Genetics: How much genes and environment influence individual differences Psychodynamic: New psychoanalysis unconscious mind as director of behavior Behavioral: How behavior is shaped by learning process Cognitive: How we take in store and retrieve information and how perceptions influence actions Humanistic: Emphasis on human growth, full potential, self actualization, self concept and free will Social cultural: Human behavior looked at in proper social and cultural context ● . ● ● ● ● ● What is the difference between experimental research and correlational research? In an experimental design, you manipulate an independent variable and measure its effect on a dependent variable. Other variables are controlled so they can't impact the results. In a correlational design, you measure variables without manipulating any of them. Gestalt psychology - concerned with understanding what? Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. Know how scatterplots work The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis, to look for a relationship between them. If the variables are correlated, the points will fall along a line or curve. The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line. Know what a negatively skewed distribution graph looks like What is the correlation thing Mean Median Mode ^^^ Symmetrical Distribution Median Mode 1- Mean Positive Skew Module 6- Correlation and Experimentation 1. Fill in the scatterplots of Figure 6.1 below. Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) ● Height in centimeters 2. Fill in the Blank. A correlation coefficient reveals the extent to which two things relate the stronger the correlation No relationship (0.00) to-height CEN Adult male height Height in inches O O Mean-1 Mode the score Top-of- head to the score Median celling distance Negative Skew Significance: Normal Distribution (Bell Curve): symmetrical distribution is produced when a large group of people's variables are tested O Ex. Intelligence, shoe size, height In order to achieve a bell curve, the mode median, and mean are at the 0-point value Perfect negative correlation (-1.00) Height Most data will not create a normal distribution curve, and instead will produce either a positive or negative skew O Positive skew: occurs when scores pull the mean toward the higher end of , which can range from+1.00 to-1.00. The closer the score gets to or 41 Negative skew: occurs when scores pull the mean toward the lower end of ● The different types of psychologist and what they study Cognitive What is the correlation thing Those who practice the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Cognitive psychology jobs exist at research facilities, universities, and medical and mental health treatment clinics. Development Those who practice the branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. Work environments for developmental psychologists include academic institutions, governmental organizations, and hospitals. Educational Those who practice the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. Individuals in the field typically work at schools or sometimes private institutions. Experimental Investigations and experimenters of psychological research and underlying mechanisms.Work environments for experimental psychologists include academic institutions, governmental organizations, research centers and private practices. Psychometric and Quantitative Psychologists Those who study a branch of psychology that focuses on how uncoils drives and conflicts influence behaviors and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. Work environments for Psychometric What is the correlation thing and Quantitative psychologists include academic institutions and research facilities. Social Those who study how we think about, influence, and relate to each other. Work environments for social psychologists include academic institutions, market research areas, and consulting firms. Forensic Individuals who use psychological expertise and techniques to address legal issues that arise during civil or criminal processes. Health Researchers and practitioners concerned with psychology's contribution to promoting health and preventing disease. They help individuals lead healthy lives; they create programs and interventions for the patient.Work environments for health psychologists include academic institutions, governmental organizations, private practices, and hospitals. Industrial-Organization Those who study the relationship between people and their working environments. They develop new beneficial methods for those in an organizational setting. Neuro What is the correlation thing Individuals that investigate the relationship between neurological processes. Work environments for neuropsychologists include the manufacturing industry, health-care facilities, commercial enterprises, or labor unions. Rehabilitation Researchers and practitioners who work with people who have lost optimal functioning after an accident, illness, or other events. They typically work in rehabilitation centers, hospitals, and health care centers. School Individuals who are involved in the assessment and intervention for children in educational settings. They diagnose and treat cognitive, social, and emotional problems that may negatively influence children's learning or overall functioning at school. They typically work at educational institutions. Sport Those who study the psychological factors that influence and are influenced by, participation in shirts and other physical activities. They typically work at gyms, hospitals, and physical rehabilitation centers. Clinical Psychologists who promote psychological health. Some specialize in particular areas. Clinical psychologists typically work at hospitals, clinics, health centers, schools, or prisons. What is the correlation thing Community Individuals who move beyond focusing on specific individuals and families and deal with broad problems of mental health in community settings. They typically work at schools, neighborhood groups, community-based organizations, advocacy organizations, and religious institutions. Counseling Psychologists who help people adjust to life transitions or make lifestyle changes. Counseling psychologists typically work at private institutions, schools, or mental health services. What are some ethical guidelines Psychologists should respect the right to dignity, privacy, and confidentiality of those they work with professionally. 4 They should also strive to minimize their own biases as well as be aware of issues related to diversity and the concerns of particular populations. - ● Structuralism and Functionalism and what/how they study - know introspection Structuralism mainly focuses on the human mind and its basic elements are identified and analyzed through introspection. Functionalism characteristically pays attention to more objective aspects of consciousness and highlights the necessity of analyzing the mind and behavior on the basis of their function. Know some of the different contributors within psychology What is the correlation thing Willhelm Wundt: Father of Structuralism (Psychology should focus on mind/introspection) William James: Father of Functionalism Max Wertheimer: Father of Gestalt psychology Sigmund Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis, first to focus on abnormal behaviors. ● J.B Watson, B.F Skinner: Fathers of Behaviorism: Psychology should be focused on behavior Hebrews/Aristotle/Augustine: Relationship btw. Mind & body are connected. Socrates/Plato/Descartes:Relationship btw. Mind & body are distinct. Socrates/Plato: Ideas are inborn Aristotle/John Locke: Ideas are formed from a blank slate. • Developmental psychology and some of the changes that have happened the last 25 years In the 21st-century, the focus of psychology moved into the cognitive realm, where instead of strictly depending on empirical studies there was also an increased acceptance of rational thinking, and other mechanisms of acquiring information and knowledge, including reasoning, memory, attention, and language. Developmental Psychology studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. What is used to determine cause and effect relationship between two variables-what must a researcher use? What is the correlation thing ● Causation! Define standard deviation A standard deviation (or σ) is a measure of how dispersed the data is in relation to the mean. Low standard deviation means data are clustered around the mean, and high standard deviation indicates data are more spread out. What is a placebo effect? To help reduce the chances of a placebo effect we give half the participants a placebo and the other half get the experiment Placebo effect: effect that occurs simply because someone thinks they are being given something to help them Know what sampling bias is Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others. Know Stanley Milgram's study obedience During the 1960s, Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of obedience experiments that led to some surprising results. In the study, an authority figure ordered participants to deliver what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to another person. What is the inferential approach when one is studying statistics? Inferential statistics use measurements from the sample of subjects in the experiment to compare the treatment groups What is the correlation thing ● APA and make generalizations about the larger population of subjects. The American Psychological Association (APA) is a scientific and professional organization that represents psychologists in the United States.Founded by G. Stanley Hall. • Cognitive theorists Cognitive theories are characterized by their focus on the idea that how and what people think leads to the arousal of emotions and that certain thoughts and beliefs lead to disturbed emotions and behaviors and others lead to healthy emotions and adaptive behavior. What is a cross sectional research design? Cross-sectional study design is a type of observational study design. In a cross-sectional study, the investigator measures the outcome and the exposures in the study participants at the same time. Define introspection and what does it involve Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.