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that motivates behavior Homeostasis: tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state O Regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level O When we are out of homeostasis, we have a need that creates a drive (opponent process) ● Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (biological AND psychological motivators) ● High Performance level Low Performance Yerkes-Dodson Law/Arousal Theory (psychological factors, NO biological factors) O Behavior stems from having a certain level of excitement or arousal o physiological needs → higher-level safety needs → psychological needs O Criticism: doesn't hold true to all human motivation low Difficult tasks Easy tasks 100 ■ EX: people sacrifice safety when they go the the military ■ EX: sacrifice food during fasting ■ EX: sacrificing sleep to pull all-nighters to study more O EX: explains why people are motivated to do high-risk activities LOW 7C: Hunger/Sex ■ Arousal medium Arousal Arousal too slow (fall asleep) →→low performance (bad grade on test) High high Glucose: form of sugar that circulates in the blood ● Self- actualization: achieving one's full potential, including creative activities Chai 2 Esteem needs: prestige and feeling of accomplishment Belongingness and love needs: intimate relationships, friends Safety needs: security, safety Hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions ● Lateral hypothalamus: tells us to eat Self-fulfillment needs Physiological needs: food, water, warmth, rest Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) (cog factors, NO biological + psych factors) O Occurs when our thoughts are inconsistent or when attitudes don't match actions ■ EX: say "social distance" but then go outside without a mask ■ EX: know nicotine can kill but continue to smoke Provides the major source of energy for body tissues ● When its level is low, we feel hunger, irritability, tiredness, fatigue, etc. Set Point: the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight Basal Metabolic Rate: body's base rate of energy expenditure Psychological needs Basic needs ● Ventromedial hypothalamus: tells us to stop eating Appetite Hormones of Endocrine System Insulin: hormone secreted by the pancreas; controls blood glucose Leptin: protein secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger Orexin: Hunger triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus Ghrelin: Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain PYY: digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain Psychological Factors of Motivational Eating ● Externals: motivated by attractiveness or availability of food Internals: less affected by presence and presentation (listen to internal cues) ● Garcia Effect: classically conditioned to avoid certain foods ● Culture and background Hungry vs Not Hungry ● Hungry: lateral hypothalamus, ghrelin, orexin, (Let's go eat!), stomach contractions, low glucose, below set point Not hungry: ventromedial hypothalamus, leptin, PYY Sexual Motivation ● Sex: a physiologicall based motive but it is more affected by learning and values ● Alfred Kinsey: began studying sexology ● Sexual Response Cycle: four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson O Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution Chai 3 O EXPLORE = EXcitement, PLateau, ORgasm, REsolution Refractory Period: resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm Sexual Disorder: a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning ● Estrogen and Testosterone (biological factors) Cultural motivations ● Social Motivational System ● Maslow's Hierarchy: belongingness 7F, G: Emotion ABCs of Emotions: A: physiological Arousal B: expressive Behavior C: Conscious experience James-Lange Theory of Emotion ● stimulus → physiological AROUSAL → emotional EXPERIENCE EX: car coming to you → pounding heart (arousal) → fear (emotion) Weakness: relies on the premise that every emotion is accompanied by a unique pattern of arousal, when in reality the same types of arousal can mean different emotions O ● Schachter-Singer's Two-Factor Theory of Emotion ● stimulus → arousal → COGNITIVE APPRAISAL → emotion EX: About to give speech in class → sweating palms →→ nervous or excitement? EX: car coming at you → pounding heart (arousal) + "I'm afraid" (cognitive appraisal) → fear (emotion) Weakness: sometimes emotions are automatic and have no appraisal (ex: fear) Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion stimulus → AROUSAL + EMOTION simultaneously and independently ● EX: Mackinac Island cannons shooting (heart beating (arousal) + surprise (emotion)) Weakness: doesn't factor situations where we may feel unclear about our emotions Lazarus Appraisal Theory stimulus → COGNITIVE APPRAISAL → arousal + emotion simultaneously ● Weakness: We don't always think before we feel Evolutionary Theories: certain emotions increase our chances of survival Fear, anger, happiness, sadness, disgust, surprise Joseph LeDoux's Theory • stimulus →→ emotional experience some emotions require no cognition at all like fear, anger, and surprise ● Amygdala (limbic system) → fear/aggression/surprise 7H: Stress Paul Ekman's research on cross-cultural displays of emotion: Culturally universal expressions ● Interaction with others influence how we manage/alter our emotional expressions ● Facial feedback hypothesis: facial expressions affect our emotions ● Stress: process by which we perceive and respond to stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging O Sympathetic NS releases stress hormones (epinephrine + norepinephrine) High Stress resistance Low Chai 4 Stressor occurs Phase 1 Alarm reaction (mobilize resources) The body's resistance to stress can only last so long before exhaustion sets in Phase 2 Resistance (cope with stressor) Phase 3 Exhaustion (reserves depleted) ● ● O Pituitary hormone in the bloodstream stimulates the outer part of the adrenal gland to release the stress hormone cortisol Stress reduces our resistance to infections, cancer, and heart diseases ● General Adaptation Syndrome: Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress O Alarm reaction O O Stressful Life Events ● Stress level decreases as you age (after teenage years) Resistance Exhaustion Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory Making decisions can be stressful. There are 4 different types of motives ● Approach-Approach: two desirable outcomes Type A personality: Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people Type B personality: Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people O EX: have to choose acceptance between Harvard and Yale Avoidance-Avoidance: Must choose between two unattractive outcomes O EX: getting flu shot; have to decide whether to poked in your left or right arm ● Approach-Avoidance: one event has BOTH attractive and unattractive features (vacillation) O EX: accepted to UM with no scholarship and accepted to MSU with big scholarship ● • Multiple Approach-Avoidance: must choose between 2+ things, each with desirable and undesirable features Biofeedback: system for electronically recording, amplifying, a feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state Blood pressure + muscle tension 71, P: Personalities Chai 5 Personality: individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting (enduring patterns of behavior) ● Case studies: in-depth analysis of one individual (Freid's preferred method) ● Surveys: questionnaires (like personality inventories) Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud proposed that unconscious motivations influence personality O Relied on case studies ● Projective Test o A personality test, such as the Rorschat or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger profections of one's inner dynamics ● Trait Perspective ● ● O Low reliability (lack consistency) and validity Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) O A projective test in which people make up stories of ambiguous pictures Rorschach Inkblot Test O Most widely used projective test O Set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots Trait: characteristic pattern of behavior; disposition to feel and act Personality Inventory: a questionnaire (often with T/F or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors (surveys) O Used to assess selected personality traits O Reliable and valid Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) O Most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests O Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use) Now used for many other screening purposes Reliable and valid O O Reliability and Validity • Reliability: is the test consistent? O Split half, test-retest ● Validity: is the test accurate? O Face validity, Construct validity, criterion related validity, etc 7K: Psychoanalytic Theories Unconscious: reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories Free Association, Hypnosis, Dream Interpretation: a method of exploring the unconscious Chai 6 Person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing Conscious Preconscious SUPEREGO Unconscious EGO ID Projective Tests (Rorschach and TAT): provide insight into the unconscious ● LOW reliability, LOW validity Id: part of personality that is purely unconscious ● Unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses Supergo: part of personality that is conscious ● Overactive superego results in anxiety Ego: part of personality that balances Id, superego, and reality Defense Mechanisms • Repression: banishing provoking thoughts ● ● Uses defense mechanism to distort reality and protect us from anxiety Denial: refusing to accept unpleasant events O EX: Refusing to accept that you have an addiction Reaction Formation: adopting beliefs opposite of what you believe in O EX: saying vaping is ok but you are actually against drugs Projection: attributing threatening impulses to others O EX: Cheating in a relationship because you suspect your partner is doing the same ● Rationalization: justifying behaviors by substituting the real reason with acceptable O EX: Cannot remember going to a funeral Regression: moving back to a less mature stage of development O EX: After failing a test, you go home, cry, eat a tub of ice cream, and cuddle in bed ● Chai 7 ● Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable behavior through socially acceptable ones O EX: Someone who is physically aggressive joins the football team ● reasons O EX: Failed a test because you didn't study, but tell friends that it's because the professor doesn't like you Displacement: diverting aggressive feelings to an acceptable object O EX: Slamming desk when angry Frued's Psychosexual Stages: childhood stages of development where the id finds pleasure on erogenous zones ● Oral (birth-1): pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing) Anal (1-3): pleasure comes from going to the bathroom ● Phallic (3-6): pleasure from genitals Latency (6-11): dormant sexual feelings ● Genital (Adolescence): maturation of sexual interests Criticism of psychoanalysis: does the unconscious even exist? Overemphasis on early childhood experiences, few testable predictions Neo-Freudians (Psychodynamic Theory) ● Unconscious and social forces influence behavior and mental processes ● Alfred Adler: inferiority complex (fear of failure) and superiority complex (desire to achieve) Carl Jung: agreed that humans have unconsciousness, but emphasized the collective unconscious ● ● O Collective Unconscious: concept of shared memory of universal concepts throughout human species O Archetypes: universal concepts like shadow (evil side of personality) and persona (public image) Karen Horney: offered feminist critique of Freud's theory 7M: Humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow: studied self-actualization process of productive and healthy people Self-Actualization: Maslow's hierarchy highest tier (achieving full potential) ● Carl Rogers: having someone that demonstrates unconditional positive regard (total acceptance of another person) toward you is essential for healthy development 70: Trait Theories Chai 8 Trait: characteristic pattern of behavior ● Trait theorists describe personality, but don't explain where it comes from ● Criticism: no explanation of cause + behavior can vary in different situations O Barnum Effect: tendency to see ourselves in vague descriptions of personality O EX: You're a Leo, but that doesn't mean you align with everything a Leo does Assumptions of trait theory: 1. Personality traits are relatively stable in individuals and predictable 2. Traits are relatively stable across situations as well 3. Everyone varies in every personality trait (two people who are outgoing don't have the same level of outgoing-ness) Paul Costa and Robert McCrae: Big Five Traits (5 dimensions of personality) ● Openness (independent vs conforming) ● Conscientiousness (organized, disciplined, efficient, high-achieving) ● Extraversion (sociable vs reserved) Agreeableness (trusting vs suspicious) Neuroticism (emotional stability vs instability (high anxiety, anger, fear, worry)) 7L: Behaviorist Theories Environmental factors determine personality O operant conditioning + observational learning Reciprocal Determinism (Triadic Reciprocality) ● Albert Bandura argued that personality is a combination of behavior, environment, and traits (BET) ● O EX: Behavior (learning to bungee jump), Env (bungee-jumping friends), and Traits (liking high-risk activities) all interact O Bandura also said that personality is influenced by self-efficacy Social Cognitive Theory of Personality ● Personality is due to a combination of environmental conditions, behavior, and cognitive factors Cognitive Perspective of Personality ● Thoughts, memories, and perceptions (mental processes) determine someone's personality ● Personal Construct Theory (G. Kelly): past behavior is best predictor of future behavior Julian Rotter: personal control O Our sense of controlling our environments rather than feeling helpless External Locus of Control: perception that luck determine one's fate O O Internal Locus of Control: perception that one controls one's own fate Associated with a number of positive outcomes ■ Chai 9 7N: Culture and Self-Concepts ● Self-concept: "Who am I"? • Self-efficacy: belief in your ability to do something ● Self-esteem: feeling of high/low self-worth • Self-serving bias: tendency to perceive ourselves favorably Spotlight effect: overestimate how much others notice us Individualists vs Collective Cultures Psychoanalytic Freud Psychodynamic Adler Humanistic Horneye Carl Jung Trait Carl Rogers Maslow Allport Eysenck McCrae + Costa Social-Cognitive Bandura Unconscious Sexual conflict Childhood conflict Defense mechanisms fend off anxiety The unconscious and conscious interact Childhood experience Defense mechanisms Self-realization Unconditional positive regard Characteristics influenced by genes Big Five traits Environment influences our behaviors Personality consists of pleasure-seeking impulses (id), a reality-oriented executive (ego), and the balancer (superego) Conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shape our personality People strive for self-actualization and develop self-awareness and self-concept 5 dimensions of personality Conditioning and observational learning Chai 10 Case study Projective Tests Case study Survey Personal Inventories Survey Observation Experimentation Survey