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seeking shelter); Hull believed it could be used to explain "non-biological" behaviors. Use operant conditioning terms and the drive-reduction theory to explain why a person may be motivated to go to work. a. People are motivated to obtain secondary reinforcers such as money to be used for primary reinforcer such as food 3. What types of behaviors cannot be explained by the drive-reduction theory? a. Siri does not account for behaviors that contribute to discomfort; risky/dangerous/thrill seeking behaviors ● Arousal theory of motivation o People have a unique level of psychological arousal, which needs to be reached, in order to feel satisfied with an activity Individuals requiring higher levels of arousal may be motivated to engage in thrill seeking activities O ● The Yerkes Dodson Law ● A psychological concepts which relates psychological arousal to how well we can perform a task A person can perform a task best when the experience in moderate level of mental/physical arousal (alertness, focus, peak physical functioning) ● Low levels of arousal result in limited focus and attention; causing less than optimal performance • High levels lead to anxiety ● ● The Inverted U Function A variation of the Yerkes-Dodson Law ● A person's familiarity with a task affects the levels of arousal needed for optimal performance Unfamiliar and complex tasks are performed the best when arousal levels are lower than normal o Leads to the optimal concentration needed to do a difficult task ● Familiar; well practiced tasks are performed best one arousal levels are higher than normal O This increases the physical/mental functioning needed to do something that has become routine Use the inverted U function to explain the differences between the Waze a professional musician prepares for their practices in their first public performance: o They may have to self motivate to increase arousal, to optimize practice performance O They may have to calm themselves, to avoid anxiety during public performance Instinct theory certain behaviors are innate (born and unlearned) and are driven by the need to survive • Example: infant crying responses O Infants do not learn to cry; the ability is present at birth O The crying serves to communicate Incentive motivation theory ● Drive reduction; arousal and instinct motivation theories emphasize the role intrinsic forces play in motivation: o Biological needs, the need for arousal and innate behaviors come from within Incentive motivation emphasizes the role eccentric motivators play in driving behaviors The offer of external reinforcement pulls our behaviors towards it ● Incentive motivation is influenced by the cognitive behavioral approach ● • Besides salary, what other incentives are used to motivate productive workplace behaviors? ● Use a cognitive-behavioral approach to explain why some incentives are more effective than others? O Preferences and the need for incentive, affect its ability to motivate Abraham Maslow and the hierarchy of needs ● American Psychologist; 1908-1970 Father of Humanistic Psychology (The "Third Force" during the history of Psychology) o And approach to psychology that emphasize humans inherent Drive towards self actualization O The process of realizing and then expressing one's only capabilities ● • Hierarchy of needs: o people are motivated to fulfill certain needs but some needs take precedence over others O All people are inherently driven towards self actualization o First, people are motivated to fulfill basics in psychological needs before growing towards self actualization Achievement Motivation The drive to master a difficult skill, overcoming challenges or acquire knowledge Without incentive motivation as the primary drive • Identify three examples of activities or behavior is motivated by achievement motivation: o Learning a new language even though you were required to for school O Mountain climbing for the challenge o Taking a difficult class in college even though you have enough credits to Types of Conflict • Psychologists recognize three types of conflicts that can occur when making decisions or choosing options to pursue • Approach-Approach Conflicts ● O Internal conflict that occurs when a person must decide between two appealing or desirable options ■ Picking between two schools that suit your needs, choosing a meal for dinner Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts o Internal conflict that occurs when a person must decide between two equally unappealing or undesirable options ■ Cleaning your bathroom or cleaning your room assuming you don't want to do either Approach-Avoidance Conflicts o Internal conflict that occurs when a person must decide to pursue or avoid option that has both advantages in disadvantages O In approach avoidance there is only ONE option O The conflict is whether you make the choice or you don't ■ Sneaking out the house, deciding to act upon something (pros and cons) Motivation for eating behaviors • Eating behaviors are studied because they serve as a case study and an example of a familiar behavior that is influenced by varied motivators The Four Basic Eating Mechanisms Most complex organisms have four mechanisms that guy the process of eating: 1. A biological feature is present to detect the need for food 2. A biological feature is present to initiate eating behaviors 3. A biological feature is present to monitor food quality while eating 4. A biological future is present to detect satiety (fullness) and stop eating behaviors a. For humans, these mechanisms are found in the digestive, nervous, and endocrine systems Roles of Hypothalamus and Endocrine System ● The hormone ghrelin (called the "hunger hormone") is secreted by the stomach & monitors the need for food When the stomach is empty ghrelin is secreted Ghrelin activates the lateral hypothalamus (LH) The LH is the brain's "hunger center" and indicates the sensation of hunger ● The hormone leptin (called the "appetite suppressor hormone") is secreted by stored fat cells & plays a role in stopping eating behaviors When fat stores increase, leptin is secreted • Leptin activates the ventromedial hypothalamus ● The VMH is the brains "satiety center" and initiates sensation of fullness • Lesions, made to a lab rats VMH, interrupted its ability to feel satiety and they ate to the point of obesity Evolutionary approach to eating ● Taste preferences for high calorie/fat content foods was once adaptive at an earlier stage of human evolution ● Human activity was more physically demanding and food supply was more unpredictable Taste preferences still remain, despite changes in lifestyle Set Point Theory . By the way is (partially) genetically determined in the LH works to maintain that "setpoint weight" • Dieting and increases in physical activity increases LH activity ● Eating drives become stronger to maintain the setpoint Eating Disorders ● The following eating disorder summaries are based on their description in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual; 5th Edition (DSM-5) The DSM-5 is widely used by mental health care professionals and contains symptoms and descriptions of mental illnesses Anorexia Nervosa DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria: Significantly low body weight; due to restrictions on food intake ● Intense fear of gaining weight • Distorted perception of body weight (belief one is overweight, when clinically underweight) Bulimia Nervosa DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria • self-esteem is overly influenced by body shape & weight Restrictions on food intake lead to binge eating ● Followed by compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain O Self induced vomiting, laxative use, excessive exercise DSM's "Risk Factors" for eating disorder developed • Cognitive -abnormal eating behaviors become a coping mechanism for anxiety and obsessive thinking (begins in childhood) Genetic- Eating disorders have high concordance rates for monozygotic twins Socio-cultural- most prevalent in industrialize, high income nations O Media emphasis on body image motivate abnormal eating habits Behavioral approach to eating disorders ● Operant conditioning's influence on eating behavior: O Positive reinforcement: the good taste of food encourages a person to eat • ● ● more o Negative reinforcement: food can be used to alleviate stress, boredom, hunger O Food is often used as a positive reinforcer itself (ex. Rats were given food pellets in a Skinner box) Classical conditioning's influence on eating behaviors: O Garcia Effect (Learned Taste Aversion) can influence food preferences ● Modeling of Bandura's social learning theory's influence eating behaviors: o Eating habits/food preferences of parents, peers, etc. are observed and imitated (modeling) Motivation for Sexual Behaviors Research by Alfred Kinsey- used standard interviews to gather data about a person's sexual behaviors & sexual histories Kinsey Interview Kit ● Research by Williams Masters and Virginia Johnson- sexual response cycle. The 4 innate physiological stages of male/female sexual activity O Excitement; plateau; orgasm; resolution O Used in the successful treatment of sexual dysfunction O Males experience a refractory period after orgasm &during the beginning of resolution Emotion A complex pattern of responses that are perceived to be personally significant. o Physiological changes : heart rate changes o Cognitive changes: sensation or feeling of emotion O Behavioral changes: facial expression, gestures Paul Ekman: specialized in human emotions as facial expressions O Facial expressions are innate and a product of evolution o Facial expression recognize is universal o Display rules: informal cultural and/or social rules on when, where & to what degree emotions are to be displayed ■ Different cultures focus on certain parts of the face Facial feedback hypothesis: creating a facial expression can induce the emotion it is meant to signal O ■ a pen held in mouth to stimulate muscle movements when smiling, reported feeling happier than a person that did not smile. ● Theories of emotion: focuses on the order in which cognitive physiological aspects of an emotion occur; explains the relationship between responses experienced during an emotion. O James- Lange Theory: emotions are interpretation of physiological changes. ■ "We are sad because we cry. Angry bc we strike. Africans bc we tremble." ■ Theory doesn't explain differences between emotions with similar changes. O Cannon-Bard Theory: the physiological response and cognitive sensation occur simultaneously. o Schachter-Singer Theory: Two-Factor Theory: physiological changes issuer first, followed by cognitive appraisal ■ Cognitive labeling: a rapid mental evaluation of others emotional responses and context to establish a reason for the emotion. Personality A collection of unique attitudes, preferences,behaviors and a general emotion disposition that characterizes an individual. These traits remain stable across varying times and situations. ● The theories of personality- Freud's psychoanalytic theory (3 levels) O Conscious level: thoughts and perceptions a person is aware of O Preconscious level: thoughts a person is not always aware of, but can easily be shifted into consciousness (memories) O Unconscious level: impulses and desires a person is completely unaware of ● The Iceberg Metaphor: O Conscious mind: the peak of the iceberg that's above the water line We see the peak and it's the smallest part of the iceberg ■ We are aware of our conscious mind and it's the smallest part of thoughts O Preconscious mind: iceberg that is around and slightly below the waterline ■ Mostly unseen but can be briefly viewed when water line changes Unconscious mind: iceberg deep underwater ■ We are unaware of what our unconscious mind holds O ● ■ Largest part of the iceberg, and our minds ■ It "drives" the rest of the iceberg through the water • The unconscious mind makes up the most part of our personality and drives us to be the way we are The Components of the Psyche- major components that influences an individual's personality O The ID- part of us that seeks immediate gratification ■ Operated by the pleasure principle (avoid pain and seek pleasure) ■ Misunderstanding that it is controlled by evil spirit, but it's not really evil ■ Alarm clock example: since your body seeks pleasure in sleeping, you would shut off your alarm and sleep in o Superego- drives a person to maintain ideal social and moral behavior ■ Drives a person toward the ideal. An imaginary vision a person has of themselves at their moral best ■ Force yourself to wake up because you have responsibilities o Ego-satisfies the id in a socially acceptable way O ■ Operates of the reality principle (the ability to grasp reality and forgo instant gratification) ■ Snooze alarm clock, sleep in for 10 minutes and then wake up O How do the components of the psyche shape one's personality? Personality results from the strength of your ego ■ Strong ego satisfies your id and prevents the pressuring of the superego ■ Weak ego is either dominated by id or superego The Defense Mechanisms ■ Conflict with all the psyches cause anxiety ■ Mental techniques people used to cope with that anxiety ■ The tendency to favor a defense mechanism was an element of a person's personality Anal Phallic ■ Freud's defense mechanisms Latency denial Genital displacement intellectualization projection reaction formation regression ● Freud's Psychosexual stage of development Table 1.1 Freud's Psychosexual Stages repression Psychosexual Approximate Stage Oral sublimation suppression Age Birth-1 year 1-3 years 3-6 years 6-11 years Adolescence stating or believing that an anxiety producing stimulus does not exist Taking out negative feelings on a less threatening target avoiding negative emotions by focusing on the detail-oriented or mundane a situation Seeking out, or reacting to, the unacceptable features in yourself when you them someone else When a true belief or realization causes anxiety; a person embraces an op belief returning to a previous stage of development Some thoughts or memories may be so anxiety provoking they are pulled the unconscious so they can no longer be recalled (happens without cons awareness) acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially acceptable way Trying to not think about a unpleasant thought or memory (happens with Description The new ego directs the baby's sucking activities toward breast or bottle. If oral needs are not met appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life. Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. Toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder. As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud's Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent and hostility toward the same-sex parent. To avoid punishment and loss of parental love, they suppress these impulses and, instead, adopt the same-sex parent's characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty whenever they violate its standards. Sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops further. The child acquires new social values from adults and same-sex peers outside the family. With puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear. If development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children. This stage extends through adulthood. O Freud theorized that personality traits result from psychic determinism ■ All mental processes are influenced by pre-existing unconscious mind Strongest impulse was the libido (sex drive) and our drive to satisfy our drive shaped our personality and behavior; beginning @infancy ■ ● ■ Each stage of development was marked by a simulation of an erogenous zone O If libido was not satisfied properly, a FIXATION could occur ■ Unhealthy attachment to one of the zones ■ Person would be stuck at the developmental stage O Satisfied through stimulation of specific areas of the body- erogenous zones ● ■ Their fixation would shape their adult personality traits • Ex) Oral fixation: highly dependant, talkative, verbally abusive, gluttonous o Contemporary psychologists no longer accept these theories because they lack scientific evidence. Theories of Personality- Humanism o People are essentially good (opposed to Id & pleasure principle) o People are self determining: free will & choice plays a role in the personality development (relies on growth and fulfillment) Maslow- self actualization: a self actualized person possesses certain personality traits. ■ Factors include societal constraints or societal attitudes • Jonah Complex: the fear that self actualization will result in increased responsibility/ lifestyle change Carl Rogers & Humanism: the man applied Humanistic principles to therapeutic techniques o Fully functioning =self actualization in his terms. Personality traits of the Fully Functioning Person - Open to experiences: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resort to ego defense mechanisms). - Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e. living for the moment). - Trusts feelings: feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People's own decisions are the right ones and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices. - Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of a person's life. Person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences. - Fulfilled life: person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences. extremely important and valuable had happened, so that the subject was to some extent transformed and strengthened even in his daily life by such experiences." • Autonomy: The self-actualized individual does not conform to other people's ideas of happiness or contentment. This original perspective allows the individual to live in the moment and appreciate the beauty of each experience. • Solitude and Privacy: self-actualized individuals value their privacy and enjoy solitude. While they also love the company of others, taking time to themselves is essential for personal discovery and cultivating individual potential. • Philosophical Sense of Humor: Self-actualized individuals generally have a thoughtful sense of humor. They are able to enjoy the humor in situations and laugh at themselves, but they do not ridicule or make fun at the expense of another person's feelings. • Spontaneity: Another characteristic of self-actualized people is a tendency to be open, unconventional and spontaneous. While these people are able to follow generally accepted social expectations, they do not feel confined by these norms in their thoughts or behaviors. O ■ Self concept is the way a person perceives themselves ● Real self: a person's understanding of their characteristics, traits and abilities Ideal self: what a person wants to be like 76 O ● ■ Healthy self concept develops when there is congruency: real self is accurate and ideal self is obtainable. Positive regard (love, attention, affection parents provide their children) could affect their child's self concept ■ Unconditional PR: provided regardless of child meeting parents expectations ■ Conditional PR: provided only when the child meets parents expectations Leads to anxiety and low sense of self worth ● Socio- Cognitive Theories O Albert Bandura studied personality psychology and development theories o Reciprocal determinism: personality traits draw a person to particular environments & situations 1- Person and cognitive factors: draws people to environments where trait is used 2- Environment: pos. consequences occur while in environment ■ 3- Behavior: cognitive trait is positively reinforced & becomes more influential o Self-efficacy: a person's belief in their ability to succeed in a specific situation. A high/low sense of self efficacy influences both motivation and personality ■ Strong sense of self efficacy tend to master challenging problems and recover quickly from setbacks ■ Weak self efficacy avoid challenging tasks and focus one negative ■ ■ outcomes o Julian Rotter- Locus of control (the degree to which people believe they have control over the outcome of life events ■ Internal locus of control- belief that one's effort and decisions determine outcomes External locus of control- belief that luck, fate and other people determine outcomes. Trait theories O Focuses on identifying/ categorizing personality traits and assessing the degrees of influence a personality trait can have on a person's lifestyle O Gordon Allport: Psycholexical Hypothesis- early attempt at organizing traits ■ Cardinal Traits- heavily influenced a lifestyle (rare trait) ■ Central Traits- general emotional & behavioral characteristics ■ Secondary Traits- characteristics know only to a select few, such as individual preferences o Raymond Catell: developed 16 Personality Factors Theory. Each trait is in everyone, but to a varying degree. ■ "the Big 5 Traits" is the updated version of this theory. 5 broad dimensions are used to describe major personality traits • Biological Approach: emphasizes the influence of neurology and genetics and focuses on temperament (Person' innate heritable emotional disposition) O Jerome Kagan identified 2 broad infant temperaments ■ High reactivity: distressed with unfamiliar stimuli Low reactivity: relaxed with unfamiliar stimuli ■ Nature and Nuture play a role in temperament ● Nature temperament results from genetically determined brain structure & neurochemistry O Ex: a parent of a highly receive child may limit child's exposure to unfamiliar situations Nurture temperament results in parenting decisions o Kagan's longitudinal research showed: ■ High reactive infants developed shy tendencies by age 2 Low reactive infants-more outgoing tendencies by age 2 ■ O Type A & B personality research ■ "Type A Behavior and Your Heart", was published in 1974 and written by American cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman ■ Summarized the research into two broad personality types- Type A & B personality ■ The two types differed by degrees of competitiveness, levels of ambition, time Type A individuals • impatient time-conscious • controlling concerned about their status • highly competitive • ambitious business-like • aggressive • having difficulty relaxing high-achieving workaholics who multi-task • drive themselves with deadlines, • are unhappy about delays often described as "stress junkies" Type B individuals • patient • relaxed These studies, and studies like them have been questioned because of peoples tendency to misinterpret the results: • easy-going • generally lacking an overriding sense of urgency management techniques and degrees of hostility During the 1960-1970's a longitudinal study followed 3,500 men for an eight year period o Type A men were 3 times more likely than type B to develop heart disease o Type A women were 4 times more likely to develop HD • These studies cannot establish a cause and effect relationship between personality type and heart disease (the illusory correlation) Some researchers suggest Type A tobacco use may cause HD (Third variable problem) Impression formation ● Factors that influence how we assess the personality traits of others O Halo effect O Attribution theory ● ● Halo effect o Tendency to allow the positive traits displayed during a FIRST impression of a person O Cause: the tendency to group positive & negative personality traits into categories ■ Assuming a kind person is also honest, reliable, generous, etc. Attribution Theory o Cognitive techniques used to explain the behaviors and personality traits of other ■ Situational attribution- assuming someone else's behaviors and personality traits result from the situations they are in ■ Dispositional attribution- assuming someone else's behaviors results from their personality traits ● Fundamental attribution error o Tendency to overestimate the influence of dispositional causes when assuming someone's personality Personality assessments Tests designed to identify the possession personality traits: gauge their influence or identify personality types ● Projective tests- subjective personality assessments, during which test takers are asked to provide a description or interpretation of ambiguous stimuli • Responses are indicative of influential personality traits ● Ex: Rorschach Inkblot test O Test taker is asked for description of ambiguous image o Tester records their observations and the reasons the provide for their response Thematic apperception test O Test takers are asked to create a story about a visual image, without any captions, to gauge personality traits and degrees of motivation Personality Inventories • Personality inventories are objective and standardized personality tests as opposed to the more subjective and interpretive projective tests ● An example of a personality inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) • Inventory used to identify personality traits that may be an indication of mental illness The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) • A self-report questionnaire Designed to identify 16 personality types The MBTI focuses on four dimensions: Extraversion and Introversion- where do you get your energy from; time alone or with others? • Sensing and Intuition- Do you pay more attention to information that comes in through your five senses, or do you pay more attention to the meaning of information? • Thinking and Feeling- when making decisions do use facts or do you put more weight on the concerns of the people involved? • Judging and Perceiving- Do you prefer a more structured lifestyle or a more flexible and adaptable lifestyle? STRESS ● A negative emotional and physiological response • Experienced when we attempt to adjust to disruptions in our routines O Stressor: any stimulus that triggers a stress response The physiology of stress • First researched by Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye (1907-1982) . Investigated the physiological components of the stress response ● identified the General Adaptation Syndrome O The 3 sequential stages of physiological responses to stressors General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 1: Alarm stage- physiological changes to deal with stressor in the short-term • Initial encounter with the stressor activates the flight or fight response ● If stressors persists; person moves onto 2nd stage Level of normal resistance Stage 3: Exhaustion Stressor occurs The General Adaptation Syndrome Alarm Resistance Stage 2: Resistance • Selye compared the body in the resistance phase, to a branch being bent by the force of our two hands. Like the branch, the body will temporarily bend in response to the stressor ● If a stressors persists for a period of weeks o Original fight/flight responses are diminished O Adrenal glands secrete the hormone cortisol According to Hans Selye, the body reacts in three phases to a stressor. In the first phase, alarm, the body mobilizes to confront the threat, which temporarily expends resources and lowers resistance. In the resistance phase, the body is actively confronting the threat and resistance is high. If the threat continues, the body moves into exhaustion. Exhaustion Alters glucose and fat cells use to increase energy to cope with the stressor ● Selye compared the body in the exhaustion phase to the branch that has broken under force of our hands pressing on either end If the resources, of resistance stage, are depleted due to a persistent stressor: O alarm stage symptoms reappear O Abnormally high levels of adrenaline can (in the long term) lead to cardiovascular disease O Immune system, potentially leading to a disease of adaptation An illness due to persistent stressors Stress assessments Holmes and Rahe Social Redustment Rating Scale ● A survey used to identify stressors and the impact they may have on physical & mental health • Identifies common stressors and assigns them a point value known as LCU's (life changing units) ● Test-takers identify the stressors, they have recently dealt with, and then total the LCU's associated with that stressor LCU's totals are translated into the risk of developing a stress-related illness (a disease of adaptation) • Sample copy of the SRRS, along with the cognitive, emotional & behavioral impacts of stress posted to BB Interpersonal Attraction The attraction, between two people, that can lead to friendships or intimate relationships Many factors leading to interpersonal attraction have been studied, such as: O The Similarity-Attraction Effect O The Propinquity (Proximity) Effect • • Similarity-Attraction effect The tendency for people to be attracted to those they are similar to The effect is strongest for shared attitudes, values & activity preferences To a lesser extent for shared personality traits Research has produced strong evidence supporting this phenomenon, but there is a hesitancy in referring to it as a "law", because of the occasional exceptions Propinquity (Proximity) Effect The tendency for people to form relationships with those they are near & encounter often O When the proximity increases the number of positive interactions Interactions between propinquity effect & similarity attraction • Explain how the similarity attraction and propinquity effects interact: o Similar people, engage in similar activities o Increasing the likelihood they will be around each other frequently & have positive interactions