The Age of Revolution and Enlightenment (1750-1900)

The period between 1750-1900 marked an era of unprecedented change driven by Enlightenment influence on political revolutions. This transformative age witnessed multiple revolutions across different spheres - political, industrial, and intellectual. Major independence movements emerged, including the American Revolution (1776), French Revolution (1789), Haitian Revolution (1803), and Latin American independence movements (1810-1820s).

The foundations for these revolutionary changes were laid by earlier European movements: the Renaissance (1400s), which sparked cultural and artistic revival; the Reformation (1500s), which challenged religious authority; and the Scientific Revolution (1600s), which introduced empirical thinking. These movements progressively shifted European society from religious-based understanding toward reason-based knowledge.

The era saw dramatic transformations in global trade, economic systems, and population distribution. Western dominance emerged through industrialization and imperialism, fundamentally altering international power dynamics and social structures.

Definition: The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individualism, directly inspired by the Scientific Revolution's methodological approaches.

The Enlightenment's Economic and Social Impact

The Enlightenment period brought revolutionary changes to economic thought and social structures through influential thinkers like Adam Smith. As a Scottish philosopher and economist, Smith fundamentally shaped modern capitalism through his seminal work "The Wealth of Nations" (1759). He introduced the concept of laissez-faire economics and the "invisible hand" of the market, arguing that individual self-interest naturally leads to broader societal benefits.

Women played a crucial role in spreading Enlightenment ideas through salons, intellectual gathering spaces they operated. Mary Wollstonecraft emerged as a pioneering voice for women's rights with her groundbreaking work "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792). She challenged prevailing notions about women's intellectual capabilities, arguing that perceived differences between genders resulted from societal conditioning rather than natural inferiority.

Definition: Laissez-faire economics refers to a system where markets operate with minimal government intervention, allowing natural market forces to balance supply and demand.

Wollstonecraft's arguments for equal educational opportunities and intellectual development laid the foundation for early feminist thought. Her daughter Mary Shelley, author of "Frankenstein," would continue this legacy of female intellectual achievement. The Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and individual rights provided the theoretical framework for women to challenge their subordinate status in society.

The French Revolution and Human Rights

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen emerged as a foundational document of the French Revolution, embodying Enlightenment principles of individual rights and equality before the law. Its first article proclaimed that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights," establishing a revolutionary standard for human rights.

The revolution itself arose from multiple causes, including severe financial mismanagement, costly colonial wars, and economic crisis. The government's debt tripled between 1774-1789, while poor harvests and harsh winters created widespread hardship. These conditions culminated in dramatic events like the storming of the Bastille and the "Great Fear" in the countryside.

Example: The Women's March on Versailles in October 1789 demonstrated how economic hardship and political grievances combined to fuel revolutionary action, with thousands of women marching to protest bread shortages and demand political change.

The National Assembly's reforms abolished feudalism, declared class equality, and established a constitutional monarchy. However, this moderate phase would give way to more radical changes as the revolution progressed, including the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a republic.