Biology Notes for the EOC and more

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in a bilayer. Steroids have a ring structure Nucleic acid-nucleotide monomer; DNA or RNA DNA is a double helix. Sugar-phosphate backbone while nitrogenous bases are the "rungs" of the ladder. Early Cells Cell Theory (all parts) Cell Membrane Structure Diffusion and Osmosis Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes Prokaryote Cell Structure: Cell wall Cell membrane. Ribosome 1.html Chromosome (DNA) Capsule Microfilament- Lysosome- Microtubule- Cytoplasm- Intermediate filaments Image credit: "Prokaryotic cells: Figure 1" Eukaryote Cell Structure: Fimbriae Ribosome Image Credit: Nucleoid region Eukaryotic Cell Endoplasmic reticulum Rough Smooth endoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum reticulum Cell (Plasma) membrane Peroxisome Mitochondria Vacuole Flagellum -Golgi apparatus Nuclear envelope Chromatin (DNA) Nucleoplasm Nucleolus -Nucleus https://www.sciencefacts.net/eukaryotic-cel Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the energy needed to start them (Activation Energy) Enzymes must bind to specific substrates like a lock and key. Heat denatures enzymes (makes them not work.) Enzymes are a type of catalyst. They are not used up during a reaction and can be "recycled." All living things are made up of cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living things. New cells can only be produced from existing cells. The cell membrane is selectively permeable. Also called a phospholipid bilayer. (Review functions of all organelles- mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi, etc.) Diffusion is when things cross a membrane. Active = with energy, pushing into the crowd. Passive = without energy, moving away from the crowd. Osmosis is when water crosses a membrane. Water goes toward the solutes (salt or sugar.) Prokaryotes = bacteria, with no nucleus, limited organelles, and simple cells. Eukaryotes = everything but bacteria; has a nucleus, and complex cells. Cellular Energy - ATP (What/where it is and what it does.) Cellular Respiration (What it does, what it makes, what it uses.) Aerobic versus Anaerobic Photosynthesis What/where it is and what it does. What it makes and what it uses. How it cycles with cellular respiration. **Plants do BOTH photosynthesis and cellular respiration. ** Cell Cycle PMAT (know all phases in order) Interphase (what is it?) When does DNA replication occur? Mitosis and Meiosis What does each do? What does each produce? Haploid versus Diploid When is each used in a cell? ** Mitosis goes through PMAT once, Meiosis goes through it twice.** ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate It is the basic unit of energy. Think of it as the dollar bill of the cell. Everything has to be changed to ATP before it can be "spent." When ATP loses a phosphate it becomes ADP, and that process releases energy. Cellular Respiration makes ATP from sugars (food). It happens in the mitochondria. It uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. This is aerobic respiration b/c it uses oxygen. When oxygen isn't available, cells can do anaerobic respiration. That makes less ATP and produces lactic acid as a byproduct. Photosynthesis makes glucose from sunlight. It happens in the chloroplast. It uses carbon dioxide and produces oxygen. (That's the reverse of cellular respiration.) Sunlight comes in, photosynthesis turns that into sugar/glucose, then cellular respiration turns the sugars into ATP. (A usable form of energy.) Interphase and Mitosis Interphase is when cells do their jobs. Mitosis is short and when they divide into 2 identical copies Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase are part of mitosis (know what happens in each- you might want to include a picture). DNA replication happens during the S phase of interphase. (Before mitosis) Mitosis makes diploid cells (exact copies.) Meiosis makes haploid cells (sperm and egg, aka gametes.) Haploid = half set of chromosomes Diploid = full set of chromosomes Mitosis is used for growth and repair. Meiosis is used to make cells for reproduction. Cancer happens when cells divide uncontrollably. (Mitosis occurs Mendel Cancer What did he do? Punnett Squares (Monohybrid crosses 4 boxes and Dihybrid crosses 16 boxes.) Vocab- Heterozygous, Homozygous, Dominant, Recessive, Allele, Genotype, Phenotype Heredity Patterns Incomplete Dominance Codominance Sex-linked traits DNA Replication Structure of DNA What it does, where it happens. General process and enzymes used. Transcription and Translation What it does/makes. What letters match. How the codons code for amino acids. DNA vs mRNA vs tRNA (The role of each.) when it shouldn't happen.) Mendel worked with pea plants to figure out the patterns of inheritance. (Review practice PUNNETT SQUARES problems!) Heterozygous - Two different (Rr) Homozygous = Two the same (RR or rr) Allele- Just one gene (R) Dominant="Trumps" the other letter, (Capital) Recessive = shows up only if no dominant (lower case) Genotype - The genes (Rr) Phenotype = The traits (Blue eyes) Incomplete dominance - mixes the traits (red and blue make purple) Codominance - both show up (cow with brown AND white fur.) Sex-linked traits - inherited along with the sex chromosomes (usually X) XX = girls XY boys Double helix (sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogen bases as the 'rungs' of the twisted ladder) DNA makes copies during the S phase of interphase Uses DNA polymerase to help the bases pair up correctly (A-T, C-G) Each new strand has 1 original strand and 1 new strand DNA → RNA → Proteins Transcription = DNA making RNA (in the nucleus) Translation = RNA making proteins (in the ribosomes) In DNA, A-T and G-C In mRNA, A-U, U-T, and G-C Codon three letter "word" on the mRNA DNA is the original, double stranded, in nucleus. mRNA is the copy, single stranded, leaves nucleus tRNA bring the amino acids to their matching codon. Mutations What they are/do. How they are related to natural selection. Redundancy of the genetic code Biotechnology What is cloning? What are GM foods? Ecology What is a biome? Food webs and chains Trophic Levels (Producer, Primary Consumer, Secondary Consumer.) How energy moves up the food chain (Rule of 90% loss.) Causes of global warming. Recycling Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Renewable versus nonrenewable resources. Evolution Darwin (What he did, finches.) Natural Selection Evidence of evolution (fossil record, comparative anatomy, biogeography.) Cladograms (how to read them.) Hominid Evolution (general Changes in DNA. Can be good, bad, or neutral. They provide the variation in populations which leads to natural selection. Redundancy of genetic code=The last letter of many codons can change and still make the same amino acid. Cloning- making exact copies of organisms. Genetically Modified (GM) foods food with man-made components of their DNA and proteins. Biome- large area of habitat (desert, tundra, etc) Producer- makes its own food (plants, some protists and some bacteria); autotrophs Consumer- eat to get their food (heterotrophs) Decomposer- break down and recycle nutrients; fungi, bacteria, and some protists (heterotrophs) Every step up the food chain = 90% loss in energy. Thus the base has the most energy and every step up is less and less. (plants get 100%, primary consumer 10%, secondary consumer 1%, etc.) -Carbon cycle (remember the relationship between photosynthesis and cell respiration!) -Nitrogen cycle- Nitrogen fixation by bacteria is very important (changes nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into useable nitrogen) -Water cycle steps Precipitation, evaporation (or transpiration), condensation Darwin- natural selection Natural selection- Populations are varied. Some individuals are more fit. They survive longer and have more babies. More of their "fit" traits get passed on. Over many generations the population changes to reflect the trends.) Classification - Linnaean versus Phylogeny/Cladistics Why classification changes. How we name a species (Binomial Nomenclature) The 3 domains The kingdoms of life and their traits. Bacteria and Viruses What is a pathogen. What do antibiotics do? What do vaccines do? Reproduction of each. Protists and Fungus desirable traits only. Hominid Evolution Trends - larger, smaller teeth, more upright, larger brains. Classification changes as we learn more about organisms and how they are related. Binomial Nomenclature - Uses the genus and species name. (Homo sapiens) 3 domains- Eukarya, Archaea, Bacteria 6 kingdoms- eubacteria, archaebacteria, protist, fungus, plant, animal Pathogen - makes you sick Antibiotics treat bacteria by breaking down the cell wall; only attack bacteria based on the receptors on the cell membrane so they don't harm your body cells Vaccines help prevent viral infections by 'prepping' your body with a dead or weakened version, then your body will make antibodies and recognize the antigens should they show up again. Binary Fission- asexual reproduction of bacteria Conjugation-exchange of genetic material in bacteria ('sexual') Transformation- bacteria can pick up DNA from its environment Lytic cycle- virus enters the host cell and injects its DNA or RNA so that the host cell makes copies of the virus until it bursts the cell open Lysogenic cycle- the DNA or RNA embeds into the host cell DNA and stays there as the host cell divides. Can then be triggered into lytic cycle Protists are eukaryotes and unicellular (or colonial- no specialization) Can be plant-like, animal-like, or fungus-like Fungi are eukaryotes, multicellular (except yeast), and have cell walls made of chitin. They are heterotrophs since they get their food from decomposing Plants - Vascular versus nonvascular Types of tissues (xylem, phloem, dermal, ground, woody, etc.) Parts of plants (stomata, chloroplasts, pollen, flowers, seeds) Reproduction in plants(spores versus flowers/pollen) What does alternation of generations mean? Image Credit: 613-329480725 Animals PLANT TISSUE SYSTEMS DERMAL TISSUE VASCOLAR TISSUE THURS STEM S PE GROUND TISSUE HOUND THUR DERMAL TISSUE -Epidermis ND TIRE -Schevenchyma -Epidermis -Cont https://www.istockphoto.com/vector/plan t-tissue-systems-vector-illustration-label ed-biology-structure-scheme-gm1178591 Endotherm versus ectotherm Invertebrate versus vertebrate Traits of each CLASS (amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, mammals.) Reproductive method and # of chambers in the heart of each group. Vascular Tissue- moves material within the plant (Xylem carries water up; phloem delivers Glucose and nutrients down and through the rest of the plant) Dermal Tissue - Like skin, the outer layer of plants. (Parenchyma) Ground Tissue- The support, photosynthetic, storage tissue. (Collenchyma) Woody Tissue- The firmest ground tissue. Not alive. (Sclerenchyma) Type of Plant Mosses Ferns (Seedless Vascular) Vascular Name Dominant Sporophyte or Gametophyte Gametophyte Spore Vascular Vascular Sporophyte Spore Fish or Gymnosperms Vascular Sporophyte Cones Angiosperms Vascular Sporophyte Amphibians Non-vasc ular Non- In plants, gametophytes are haploid (n). Sporophytes are diploid (2n). Plants produce both sexually and asexually through a process called Alternation of generations. Angiosperms (flowering plants) can attract pollinators, which enables them to reproduce more successfully than nonvascular plants like mosses which have to rely on the right environmental conditions (water) to reproduce Ecothermic or # Endothermic? Chambers in heart Structure(s) used in reproduction. Ectothermic Ectothermic 2 Flower/Pollen 3 Gas Offspring Transfer (eggs or (lungs live birth) Lay eggs or gills) Gills Gills in 1st life stage Eggs laid in water Anatomy and Physiology Describe the parts of the nervous system and know the basic anatomy of the brain. Describe the factors affecting blood flow through the cardiovascular system (Path through the heart too.) Name the lobes of the brain and the parts of the brainstem. -Describe the basic anatomy and physiology of the human reproductive system. Describe the process of human development from fertilization to birth and major changes that occur in each trimester of pregnancy. Explain the basic functions of the human immune system, including specific and nonspecific immune response, vaccines, and antibiotics. Reptiles Birds Mammals Ectothermic 3 Endothermic 4 Endothermic 4 and lungs in 2nd life stage (also use skin which must remain moist) Lungs Lungs (extra set) Lungs Nervous: Nervous System is fast while endocrine is slow. Nerve cell-neuron. Autonomic - automatic (heartbeat) Somatic - reflexes or controlled movements (walking) Cardiovascular and Pulmonary: Path of blood through the heart: Amniotic Egg Amniotic eggs Live Birth Parts of the brain (location)- Frontal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Temporal Lobe, Occipital Lobe, Cerebellum, Brain Stem, Pons, Medulla Oblongata ** Find a pic to add here. *** Peripheral sends impulses to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and that sends directions back to the peripheral nervous system. Endocrine hormones(growth, reproduction, etc.) Vena Cava, Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Pulmonary Artery, Lungs, Pulmonary Vein, Left Atrium, Left Ventricle, Aorta, Rest of Body. Arteries- carry blood away from the heart Veins- bring blood to the heart Capillaries- thin walled to make gas exchange between red blood cells and surrounding tissue or alveoli easier. Reproduction: Testes- site of meiosis to produce sperm cells in men Ovaries- site of meiosis to produce egg cells in women 1st Trimester Fertilized egg becomes a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. Developing embryo continues to divide and differentiate into cells that will become all the organs in the body. After 8 wks, the embryo is considered a fetus. By 3 months, all organs are formed, but not yet functional 2nd Trimester From months 4-6; cartilage skeleton replaced by bone; fingerprints form; mother can feel movement; many organs become functional 3rd Trimester Fetus continues to grow rapidly; lungs are the last organs to reach full maturity; baby is born at 40wks, or 9months Immune System: Nonspecific (internal or external) External- skin, mucus, eyelashes, etc. that help prevent entry of pathogens Internal- white blood cells/phagocytes (inflammation/swelling, fever, etc.) Specific B cells and T cells (Lymphocytes), and antibodies. They recognize antigens on the pathogen and respond directly Vaccines - build antibodies in the blood to make people immune to viruses. Antibiotics- medicine that kills bacterial cells only.