Biology

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evolve 4. Reproduce They will all be made up of matter a require and use energy The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms. All things must have at least one cell Different levels of cell structure and organization include: unicellular, colonial, multicellular Unicellular: composed of a single cell, Ex: Bacteria, yeast, ameba Multicellular: is a group of cells that live and work together in one organism. There are different types of cells in a multicellular organism. Such as in your body you have muscle cells, blood cells etc. Cell specialization: a cell that is made for just one function such as a brain cell, immune system cells etc Tissue: a group of similar cells all performing a similar activity Organ: several tissues functioning unit Various systems form a multicellular organism. An advantage of having cell specialization is a cell only has one job and can be much more efficient at that one function. A disadvantage is that the cells depend on one another so if one cell group fails the rest will fail along with it How are cells similar They all die at some point They all have a membrane And they have DNA Homeostasis: is the internal balance that a cell maintains; it is what your body does to insure your blood pressure. Body temp etc the same Stability: Cells must be able to maintain very stable internal environment Reproduction: All organisms produce new organisms like themselves DNA: the inherited molecule that is past on that determines are traits Sexual reproduction: Offspring are produced by the joining together of DNA from two parents. Asexual: Offspring are produced by only one parent. The ability to reproduce is a characteristic of a living thing Evolution: Change over time When organisms reproduce: They will pass down theses favorable characteristics to their offspring If an organism is not well adapted to its environment it is unlikely to survive and reproduce Since different genes are being passed by offspring organisms will slowly change over time 09/12/22 Ecology Notes, Food web, biodiversity Etc Producer: An organism that produces its own energy (Autotroph) Self nourishing Two types: Photoautotroph Need Sunlight, and Chemoautotroph Use Chemicals around them Heterotroph get its energy from other living things (Consumer) Energy Pyramid Trophic level 4- Tertiary consumer Trophic level 3- Secondary consumer Trophic level 2- Primary consumer Trophic level 1- Producer Biodiversity: the different types of animals in an ecosystem Decomposers: they are heterotrophs 09/23 Atoms Electrons Exterior of an atom Have a negative charge Charges the atom, and determines if it is an ion Protons - The pocket of an atom (the nucleus) Positive charge Gives identity to the element If the proton count changes the element changes Neutrons In the nucleus Have a charge of 0 Defines Isotope/Mass 10/3 Anions: Negatively charged Ion (Non-Metals) Cations: Positively Charged Ion (Metals) The volume # the Element is in is the # of Val. Electrons in that element Everything on the left is positive and the right is negative Left= losing(+ Right-Receiving( - ) Hydrogen 1 H 1.008 Mass # = Protons + Neutrons Atomic # = the number of protons Neutrons Protons - Mass # Element Name Atomic # (Protons) 10/4 - Bonding Ionic and Covalent Element Symbol Atomic Mass If you have to add a electron is makes the element a negative charge (-) Ionic Bonding: involves the complete transfer of electrons between a cation and anion or metal and nonmetal in a balanced ration (Transfer of electrons Full charge difference Covalent: Sharing electrons Polarity (Polar Covalent Bond): Unequal sharing of charges (P= Partial Charge ) 10/5 Atoms in Columns.... 1, 2, and 13 - Will lose electrons to form Cations 15, 16, and 17 - Will gain/steal electrons to form Anions The octet rule mean that it needs 8 val elec on the outer shell to remain stable Electronegativity- Atoms ability or desire for electrons Water Molecules 6.3 10/12/22 Molecule= Any two atoms bonded together Compound= Any two or more atoms from different elements. ALL COMPOUNDS ARE MOLECULES Unequal polar covalent bonds lead to partial charge difference 10/18 Ionic bonding is not the same as polar covalent bonding!!!!!!! Ionic Between a metal and non-metal Complete transfer of electrons forming a cation and anion Unequal sharing of electrons 10/19 Polymer: the necklace Monomer: The small part of the chain Macromolecules /Polymer Carbohydrate (anything that ends in OSE falls in the carbohydrates category) Lipids Protein Same Nucleic Acids Function Stores Energy Build and create compound Involve non metals Stores genetic info blocks Monomer/Building Examples Chemical messenger Fats. Enzymes/ Cell structure Sugars/Saccharides Polar Covalent Bonds Between two nonmetals Amino Acids Nucleotides One atom is more energized than the other Cellulose Steroids Antibodies DNA or RNA 10/20 What are the monomers of lipids? CHO Lipids= are long term energy storage Carbohydrates are short tear Energy storage ● Nucleic acids monomer are nucleotides Biomolecules Carbohydrates (CHO), lipids (CHO), proteins (CHON), nucleic acids (CHOMP) 10/21- Proteins ● Proteins has the most macromolecules functions Amino acids Amino acids- The # and organization of amino acids determines the protein ● Proteins are formed from a collection of polypeptide chains Basic Structure of Amino Acids H H-N-C-C-OH | R Side Chain Amino Group ● An Amino Acid has Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen There are four different amino acids Serine, Alanine, Glycine, and Valine ● Creates a polypeptide (Amino Acid chain) by dehydration synthesis Enzymes Carboxyl Group Lowers the energy needed to start a chemical reaction Breaks down food, Build proteins Suffix ending in ASE is most likely an Enzyme ● Sensitive to PH, temp ● • Enzymes are reusable 10/24 What is catalase? It is a enzyme that is found in all living organism What does catalase do? They are used to break down lactase and can be reused 10/27- Enzymes Break down food Live in the stomach acid There are proteins that speed up chemical reactions All enzymes are similar 1. All enzymes have a active sight Starch is digested to form glucose, when there is too much it forms a glycogen which is a carbohydrate 2. Enzymes are very specific If the lye pace is deactivated then you will die 3. They are recycled Once they act on one reaction they can move on to the other - 10/28 1. What is a nucleotide? A structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA What three parts make a nucleotide? Sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen containing base 3. What two parts of the nucleotide stay the same and do not change? The phosphate group and sugars 4. What portion of the nucleotide changes? 2. The order and arrangement of the nitrogen bases 5. What is the monomer of nucleic acid called? Nucleotides 6. What are the nitrogenous bases for DNA Adamian, guanine, thymine, cytosine 11/2 - Review The element CHO is found carbohydrates, CHO stands for carbon hydrogen and oxygen CHONP is in nucleic acid carbon nitrogen oxygen nucleic acid and phosphorus ● RNA is a nucleic acid ● • Glycogen is a carb ● And glycerol is a lipid Macromolecules are larger molecules made up of smaller molecules Mono (one) mers build together to make a poly (many)mer Cohesion is when water molecules stick together by hydrogen bonding 11/7- Cells Diffusion Dynamic Equilibrium- There is continuous movement of particles but no overall change in the concentration of materials. The three main factors that affect diffusion are concentration, temperature, and pressure Facilitated Diffusion- Uses Transport Proteins to move other ions and small molecules across the plasma membrane. ● DOES NOT REQUIRE ADDITIONAL ENERGY Osmosis- Refers to the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Solutions Isotonic Solution- Any external solution that has the same solute concentration and water concentration compared to body fluids ● When a cell is in a solution that has the same concentration of water, solutes-ions, sugars, proteins, and other substances as its cytoplasm the cell is said to be a Isotonic Solution - If a cell is in a solution that has a lower concentration of solute the cell is said to be in a Hypotonic Solution. - If a cell is in a solution when the concentration of solute outside of the cell is higher than its inside then it is said to be in a Hypertonic Solution Endocytosis and Exocytosis • Pumps, Endocytosis, and Exocytosis are all forms of Active Transport The function of the Sodium-Potassium ATPass pump is to maintain the level of sodium ions and potassium ions inside and outside the cell. Endocytosis- When a substance absorbs external material Exocytosis- When cells move material from inside the cell into the extracellular fluid ● Some substances are too large to move through the plasma membrane by diffusion or transport proteins. In this case the cells use the processes of Endocytosis and Exocytosis ● Together the different types of transport allow the cells to interact with its environment while maintaining Homeostasis Modern cells theory The cell is the smallest living unit in all organisms • All living things are made of cells • If you can see the organism is multicellular ● If you can not see it with a naked eye then it is unicellular • Prokaryotic cells are too tiny to see All cells come from pre-existing cells (Meiosis and Mitosis) Prokaryotes Cytoplasm, Ribosomes (Small organelles that make protein), No nucleus, Cell membrane, Membrane - bound organelles Eukaryotes Cytoplasm, Ribosomes, Nucleus, Cell membrane, No membrane - bound organelles Prokaryotic 1. No Nucleus 2. No membrane org 3. Single Cell 4. No Golgi Apparatus 5. No mitochondria Both 1. Both cells 2. Ribosomes 3. Maintain Homeostasis cell Cell Structure 4. Cytoplasm 5. Plasma membrane Eukaryotic Orgellels • Cell membrane- Only lets select materials in and out of the cell • Cytoplasm-Holds everything inside the cell in palace • Mitochondria- powerhouse of the cell ● Ribosomes- Create proteins Homework 1. Nucleus 2. Have membrane org 3. Plant & Animal cell 4. Golgi Apparatus 5. Mitocondria ● Cytoskeleton- Is a supporting network of long thin protein fibers that form a framework for the cell and provide an anchor for the organelles inside the cells ● Microfilament- is the thin protein threads that give the cell its shape ● Centriole- Is an organelle made up of microtubules that function during cell division ● Cialis-Are short, numerous projections that look like hairs • Flagella- Are long, tail like projections with whip like motion ● Microtubules- Are long, hollow proteins cylindrical in shape that form a rigid skeleton for the ● The Cell Walls structure is a thick, rigid, mesh of finders that surround the outside if the plasma membrane,protects the cell, and gives it support • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to it ● Within the nucleus is the site of ribosome production called Nuclouse • Peptidoglycan make up the prokaryotic cell wall ● Within the chloroplast there are many disk shaped compartments called microtubules; it is there that the energy from the sunlight is trapped by chlorophyll. ● The inner membrane of the mitochondria is highly folded. This provides a large surface area for breaking bonds in sugar molecules. • Endoplasmic relectium is a membrane system of folded sacs and interconnected channels that serve as the site for protein and lipid synthesis Golgi Apparatus- Is a flattened stack of membrane that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins into sacs called vesicles Vacuoles- Is a sac used to store food enzymes and other materials Lysosomes- Are vesicles that contain substances that digest excess or worn-out organelles and food particles. Pg 215, answer # 5-8 questions ON PAPER 11/17-Microscopes and Plasma Membrane History ● Advances in microscope technology have allowed scientists to discover cell organelles such as the nucleus and to develop the cell theory. ● German scientists Schwan and Schleiden identified that tissue consists of cells Schleiden- Determined All plants are composed of cells Schwann- Reported that animals are made up of cells Virchow- Proposed all cells come from existing cells Microscopes • Compound microscopes use light and lenses to magnify objects ● A Scanning Electron Microscope directs electrons over the surface of the specimen ● Lenses and visible light are used in Optical Microscopes to magnify objects ● Both compound and electron microscopes are used to magnify objects Plasma Membrane ● All cells have a plasma membrane a boundary that helps control what enters and leaves the cell Eukaryotic cells- Cells that contain a nucleus and membrane bound organelles TEM-Uses magnets to aim a beam of electrons at a thin slice of cells Prokaryotic cells-Cells that do not contain membrane-bound organelles, and do not have a nucleus • Organelles carry specific cell function • The nucleus is the central organelle that contains the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA According to the Endosymbiont theory eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells millions of years ago, and the evolution of eukaryotic cells might involve a symbiotic relationship between prokaryotic cells. Phospholipid Bilayer- The two layers of phospholipids arranged tail to tail that make up the plasma membrane of a cell Function of Cholesterol in the Plasma membrane- It helps to prevent the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids bilayers from sticking together. Endosymbiont Theory: explains the origin of the cell diversity as the beginning with symbiotic relationships in which one prokaryotic cell lived inside of another and both cells benefited from the relationships. ● A Transport Protein moves needed substances of waste materials through the plasma membrane and contributes to the selective permeability of the plasma membrane ● The Fluid Mosaic Model is a model used to describe a plasma membrane in which molecules can float Function of Proteins in the Plasma Membrane 1. When found on the outer surface of the membrane proteins called receptors transmit signals to the inside of the cell. 2. Proteins at the inner surface of the plasma membrane anchor the membrane to the cells internal support structure giving the cells its shape. hh 11/28 - Plant and Animal Cells Plant cells Cell wall Chloroplast Rigid Shape Large Vacuole Animal Cell Microvilli Vesicle Golgi Apparatus Plasma Membrane x1 Plant Cell Both Mitochondrion Membrane Nucleus Cell membranes Nucleus Chromatin Nucleolus Nuclear Pore Nuclear Envelope Ribosomes DNA Cytoplasm Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Free Ribosome Cytoplasm Lysosome Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Flagellum Animal Cells Lysosomes Centrioles Flagella Plant cell mitochondrion vacuole peroxisome lysosome vesicle 12/2 cytoplasm ● ● Kap chloroplast ribosomes rough endoplasmic reticulum endoplasmic reticulum 3. What is ATP? smooth 12/1-Cell Respiration What is ATP? It is Adenosine Triphosphate, that is used in cellular respiration Glucose+Oxygen Carbon Dioxide+H₂O+Energy!!! ↓ Reactants -nucleoplasm nucleolus nuclear envelope nuclear pore cell wall plasmodesma cell membrane Golgi apparatus Plants use it to crate food Plants Use photosynthesis to make cheese ● Plants need light to receive energy ● After losing the cheese ATP is turned to ADP ● Bacteria, muscle cells, cheese do not need much oxygen Cofactor- Lose 2. Where does it occur in the cell? In the cell cytoplasm ↓ Products Electrons Oxidised Fermentation- Chemical substance breaking down gay homo people 12/6 1. What are the conditions of Anaerobic respiration? No air Glycolysis • The product of stage 1 moves on to the mitochondria where stage 2 takes place ● Then stage 3 and it does requires oxygen GO→CO₂W Glucose + Oxygen →CO₂+ 12/9- Mitosis and Meiosis Meiosis- Sex Cells, Gametes Mitosis- Identical Reproductions, Replaces cells • Egg cells has 23 Chromosomes ● Sperm cell has 23 Chromosomes Mitosis When they come together they have 46 Chromosomes Meiosis is what we call Reduction Division Interphase Phases Growth DNA Replication Cell Functions Prophase- Beginning Metaphase - Two X lined in the middle Anaphase - Move away from Telophase - Two cells Centromeres are the center of the chromosomes when the chromatids (Half) mirror each other Meiosis ● In Meiosis you divide twice (PMAT x2) • You put a Number next to the phases of Meiosis Phases Prophase II - Spindles are starting to form Metaphase II- One X in the middle Anaphase II- Chromatids pulled away Telophase II - 4 cells forming Homologous Chromosomes- Contain the same type of genes in the same locations Nondisjunction- When chromosomes do not separate correctly 12/12- Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis Makes Body cells The chromosomes are condensing Metaphase: All the chromosomes line up in the middle Anaphase pulled away Telophase: Forming 2 new nuclei Both Diploid starting cell The nuclear membrane disappears in prophase • During interphase the chromosomes are duplicated • Cytokinesis splits cells ● At the end of Meiosis you get four new cells Meiosis Makes Gametes Pair in there Homologous pair Metaphase: In pairs in the middle Anaphase Pulled away Telophase: 2 new nuclei Meiosis Semester 2 Both 01/5- Plants Stamen (Male)- Filament, Anther Pisti (Female)- Ovary, Style, Stigma Pmat 01/10-DNA Gene- Segment of DNA that codes for a trait Alleles- Different options or variations of a trait Genotype- Actual alleles that you have!!! Mitosis Homologous Phenotype- Physical characteristics Recessive Alleles- Only physically seen if no dominant allele is present Law of Independent Assortment & The Law of segregation Law of segregation: When an organism makes gametes, each gamete receives just one gene copy, which is selected randomly. The Law of Segregation describes the segregation of alleles within one gene into gametes, whereas the Law of independent assortment describes the segregation of the alleles from different genes into gametes. They are both similar because they describe the inheritance of alleles in meiosis. Law of independent assortment: the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another Associated with Miosis Amoeba sisters Di-hybrid- prefix di means two