Subjects

AP Calculus AB/BC

•

Dec 7, 2025

•

4 pages

Understanding Integrals, Area Concepts, and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Chelsea

@zuncho

Ready to master calculus integrals? This review covers essential integration... Show more

1 / 4

Calculus AB Review Integrals, Area, FTC
-) //dx = Sx²²dx
(A) In x² + C
2) f(sin(2x) + cos(2x)) dx =
(A) cos(2x) + sin(2x) + C
(B) cos(2x) +

Integration Techniques and Fundamental Properties

Integration is all about finding antiderivatives, and there are several key techniques you need to master. When integrating expressions like $\frac{1}{x^2}$ , remember to rewrite them using negative exponents $x^{-2}$ , which gives you $-x^{-1} + C$ as your answer.

For trigonometric functions like $\int (\sin(2x) + \cos(2x))dx$ , the substitution method is your best friend. Make a substitution like $u = 2x$ $which means $du = 2dx$$ , and you'll transform the integral into a simpler form that's easier to solve.

When dealing with piecewise functions in area problems, break down the integral into separate regions. For example, finding $g(x) = \int_{-3}^{x} f(t)dt$ involves calculating the accumulated area from the starting point to various x-values.

Pro Tip: When using substitution, always remember to adjust your dx term! If $u = 2x$ , then $dx = \frac{du}{2}$ . This small detail is often where calculation errors happen.

More complex rational expressions like $\int \frac{x}{x^2 - 4} dx$ also yield to substitution. By setting $u = x^2 - 4$ , you can convert it to $\frac{1}{2} \ln|x^2 - 4| + C$ .

Properties of Definite Integrals and FTC Applications

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) connects derivatives and integrals in a powerful way. If G(x) is an antiderivative of f(x), then $G(4) = G(2) + \int_{2}^{4} f(t)dt$ . This means you can find unknown values of antiderivatives using definite integrals!

When working with average values, remember the formula: $\frac{1}{b-a}\int_{a}^{b} f(x)dx$ . This represents the average value of a function over an interval, like finding the average value of $\frac{\cos x}{x^2+x+2}$ on $[-1, 3]$ .

For integrals containing composite functions, like $\int x^2\cos(x^3)dx$ , substitution works wonders. By setting $u = x^3$ and finding $du = 3x^2dx$ , you can simplify the integral to $\frac{1}{3}\sin(x^3) + C$ .

Watch Out: When working with definite integrals and substitution, you can either change the bounds of integration to match your new variable or substitute back before evaluating the limits.

Definite integrals can also have variable upper limits, as in $\int_{0}^{x^2} sin(t^3)dt$ . These require careful application of the FTC and sometimes the chain rule when finding derivatives.

Approximation Methods and Real-World Applications

Understanding the geometric meaning of integrals helps with problem-solving. Trapezoidal sums and Riemann sums provide different approximations of the true area under a curve. The shape of the function determines whether these approximations over- or under-estimate the actual value.

Real-world problems often involve rates of change. In a snow accumulation problem, for example, when snow falls at rate f(t) and is removed at rate g(t), the net rate of change is f(t) - g(t). The total snow at any time can be found using definite integrals.

To find the amount of accumulated quantity (like snow), integrate the rate function. For instance, $\int_0^6 f(t)dt$ gives the total snow accumulated from t=0 to t=6. When working with removal rates, create a piecewise function to represent the total removal over time.

Make It Click: Think of integration as "adding up tiny bits." When a snowplow removes snow at 125 cubic feet per hour for 1 hour, that's 125 cubic feet total. The integral just handles varying rates!

The net quantity at any time equals the total accumulation minus the total removal. For our snow example, this would be $\int_0^9 f(t)dt - (125 + 216)$ cubic feet at t=9.

Applications to Volume, Flow, and Motion

Circular cross-sections are common in many real-world applications. For a blood vessel with varying diameter B(x), the average radius is found using $\frac{1}{360}\int_0^{360} \frac{1}{2}B(x)dx$ , which you can approximate using numerical methods like the midpoint Riemann sum.

Understanding the physical meaning of integrals is crucial. For example, $\pi\int_{125}^{175}(\frac{B(x)}{2})^2dx$ represents the volume of the blood vessel between positions x=125 and x=175, measured in cubic millimeters. This is because the cross-sectional area at any point is $\pi r^2$ or $\pi(\frac{B(x)}{2})^2$ .

In particle motion problems, velocity v(t) is the derivative of position x(t), so position is the antiderivative of velocity: $x(t) = \int v(t)dt + C$ . When given information like "the particle has position x=5 when t=2," you can determine the constant of integration C and find the complete position function.

Connect the Concepts: Remember that velocity is the derivative of position, and position is the antiderivative of velocity. This relationship is at the heart of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus!

To solve completely, find the antiderivative, determine the constant of integration using the given information, and then use the resulting function to calculate positions at specific times.

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Subjects

AP Calculus AB/BC

•

Dec 7, 2025

•

4 pages

Understanding Integrals, Area Concepts, and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Chelsea

@zuncho

Ready to master calculus integrals? This review covers essential integration techniques, area calculations, and applications of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. You'll see how to solve various types of integrals and apply these concepts to real-world problems involving accumulation and... Show more

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Integration Techniques and Fundamental Properties

Pro Tip: When using substitution, always remember to adjust your dx term! If $u = 2x$ , then $dx = \frac{du}{2}$ . This small detail is often where calculation errors happen.

More complex rational expressions like $\int \frac{x}{x^2 - 4} dx$ also yield to substitution. By setting $u = x^2 - 4$ , you can convert it to $\frac{1}{2} \ln|x^2 - 4| + C$ .

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Properties of Definite Integrals and FTC Applications

Watch Out: When working with definite integrals and substitution, you can either change the bounds of integration to match your new variable or substitute back before evaluating the limits.

Definite integrals can also have variable upper limits, as in $\int_{0}^{x^2} sin(t^3)dt$ . These require careful application of the FTC and sometimes the chain rule when finding derivatives.

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Approximation Methods and Real-World Applications

Make It Click: Think of integration as "adding up tiny bits." When a snowplow removes snow at 125 cubic feet per hour for 1 hour, that's 125 cubic feet total. The integral just handles varying rates!

The net quantity at any time equals the total accumulation minus the total removal. For our snow example, this would be $\int_0^9 f(t)dt - (125 + 216)$ cubic feet at t=9.

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Applications to Volume, Flow, and Motion

Connect the Concepts: Remember that velocity is the derivative of position, and position is the antiderivative of velocity. This relationship is at the heart of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus!

To solve completely, find the antiderivative, determine the constant of integration using the given information, and then use the resulting function to calculate positions at specific times.