Velocity and Rates of Change Basics

Ever wonder how scientists calculate exactly how fast something is moving at a specific moment? That's what this section is all about!

Rate of change measures how quickly one variable changes compared to another. When we talk about average speed, we're looking at total distance traveled divided by time elapsed. But real-world motion is more complex - that's where instantaneous speed comes in, telling us exactly how fast something is moving at a precise moment.

There's an important distinction between speed and velocity. Average velocity includes direction (displacement ÷ time), while instantaneous velocity gives us both speed and direction at a specific moment. If you're moving in a straight line without changing direction, your average speed and velocity will be the same.

Quick Example: If you drive north for three hours and cover 270 km, your average speed and average velocity are both 90 km/h. Simple math, big concept!

Let's see this in action with a falling object. If a ball drops from the CN Tower (450m high), we can calculate its velocity after 3 seconds using position function s(t) = -4.9t². By looking at small time intervals and using limits, we find the ball is falling at 29.4 m/s after 3 seconds.

Finding Instantaneous Velocity Using Limits

When calculating instantaneous velocity, we're essentially asking: "How fast is something moving at an exact moment?" This requires a clever approach using limits.

Looking at the falling ball example, we can create a table of average velocities over smaller and smaller time intervals. As the intervals get tiny (approaching zero), the average velocities converge to -29.4 m/s. This is our instantaneous velocity at exactly t = 3 seconds.

The mathematical approach uses this formula: v = lim(h→0) $s(3+h) - s(3)$/h. By substituting our position function s(t) = -4.9t² and working through the algebra, we get -29.4 m/s.

This process connects directly to finding the slope of a tangent line on a graph. The average velocity equals the slope of a secant line connecting two points on the position graph. As the time interval shrinks to zero, this secant becomes a tangent line, giving us the instantaneous velocity.

Math Connection: Instantaneous velocity isn't just about motion - it's the slope of the tangent line to the position graph at a specific point. This fundamental connection between motion and graphs is what makes calculus so powerful!

Calculating Velocity with Position Functions

Now that we understand the concept, let's see how to calculate velocity for any position function. The general formula for instantaneous velocity at time t = a is:

v(a) = lim(h→0) $s(a+h) - s(a)$/h

This formula works for any straight-line motion described by a position function s(t). The steps are always the same: find the change in position over a tiny time interval, divide by that interval, and take the limit as the interval approaches zero.

Let's try an example: If a particle moves according to s(t) = t² + 2t, what's its velocity after 3 seconds?

1. Start with v(3) = lim(h→0) $s(3+h) - s(3)$/h
2. Substitute the function: lim(h→0) $(3+h)² + 2(3+h) - (3² + 2(3))$/h
3. Expand and simplify: lim(h→0) $9 + 6h + h² + 6 + 2h - 15$/h
4. Further simplify: lim(h→0) $h² + 8h$/h = lim(h→0) h$h + 8$/h
5. Evaluate the limit: 0 + 8 = 8 m/s

Study Tip: When solving these problems, always expand everything first, then look for terms that can be factored out. The h in the denominator needs to be canceled by factoring the numerator, otherwise the limit won't work!

Other Rates of Change

Rate of change isn't just about motion - it applies to any two related variables. If y = f(x), the average rate of change of y with respect to x is:

Average rate of change = $f(x₂) - f(x₁)$/$x₂ - x₁$

And just like with velocity, we can find the instantaneous rate of change by taking the limit as the interval approaches zero:

Instantaneous rate of change = lim(Δx→0) Δy/Δx = lim(x₂→x₁) $f(x₂) - f(x₁)$/$x₂ - x₁$

Let's see this in action with temperature change. Imagine taking a thermometer from a 20°C room to 5°C outdoors and recording temperatures every 30 seconds. To find the average rate of temperature change between t = 2 min and t = 4 min, we calculate:

ΔT/Δt = $5.7°C - 8.3°C$/$4 min - 2 min$ = -2.6°C/2 min = -1.3°C/min

The negative sign tells us the temperature is decreasing. As we calculate this over smaller intervals (2 min to 3.5 min, 2 min to 3 min, 2 min to 2.5 min), the rates get closer to -2.2°C/min, which approximates the instantaneous rate.

Real-world Application: This same concept applies to anything that changes over time - population growth, drug concentration in blood, or cost fluctuations. The units tell the story: °C/min, people/year, or dollars/month!

Complex Rate of Change Applications

Rates of change become especially useful when dealing with objects that change in multiple dimensions. Let's look at an inflating balloon to see this in action.

For a spherical balloon, the volume formula is V(r) = (4/3)πr³. To find how quickly the volume changes with respect to radius when r = 10 cm, we calculate:

Rate of change of volume = lim(Δr→0) ΔV/Δr = lim(r→10) $V(r) - V(10)$/$r - 10$

Working through the calculation:

1. Substitute the volume formula
2. Factor out constants: (4π/3) lim(r→10) $r³ - 10³$/$r - 10$
3. Factor the numerator: (4π/3) lim(r→10) $(r - 10)(r² + 10r + 100)$/$r - 10$
4. Simplify: (4π/3)(300) = 400π cm³/cm ≈ 1257 cm³/cm

This tells us that when the radius is exactly 10 cm, the volume increases by about 1257 cubic centimeters for each additional centimeter of radius. The rate gets larger as the balloon grows!

Important Note: Don't cancel units in rate of change problems! The units tell us what we're measuring - in this case, cm³/cm shows volume change per radius change.

Mastering rates of change gives you the power to analyze how anything changes in relation to something else - a fundamental skill in calculus and science.