The period from 1450 to 1648 Europe marked a transformative era characterized by significant cultural, religious, and political changes that shaped modern European society.
During the Renaissance, humanism emerged as a central intellectual movement that emphasized human potential and classical learning. Humanism ap world history definition encompasses the focus on classical texts, individual achievement, and secular pursuits rather than purely religious matters. The Northern Renaissance AP Euro spread these ideas beyond Italy, adapting humanist principles to local contexts while maintaining stronger religious elements. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 revolutionized information sharing, making books more accessible and promoting literacy across social classes. This innovation helped spread Renaissance ideas and later facilitated the Protestant Reformation.
The Protestant Reformation fundamentally challenged the Catholic Church's authority and sparked widespread religious reforms. Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517 initiated this movement, leading to the emergence of various Protestant denominations. This period also saw the rise of New Monarchies, with rulers consolidating power through bureaucracies, standing armies, and taxation systems. Notable examples include England under the Tudors and France under the Valois dynasty. Commercial developments included the growth of banking, joint-stock companies, and new trading routes, while agricultural changes involved enclosure movements and new farming techniques. These developments contributed to social mobility, urbanization, and the emergence of a merchant middle class. The use of vernacular languages in literature and religious texts, instead of Latin, made knowledge more accessible to common people and helped develop national identities. The period concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, establishing principles of state sovereignty that would shape European politics for centuries to come.
