Cromwell's Rise and the Break with Rome

Thomas Cromwell, a former associate of Wolsey, rose to prominence by proposing a solution to Henry's annulment problem. In 1531, Cromwell suggested that Parliament could pass a law granting Henry the power to annul his own marriage.

This idea led to the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1533, which declared England not subject to foreign rule and established Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church in England. This legislation allowed Henry to grant his own annulment and marry Anne Boleyn.

Definition: Act in Restraint of Appeals - A pivotal piece of legislation that severed England's legal ties with Rome and established royal supremacy over the Church.

Cromwell's success in resolving the annulment issue led to his appointment as Henry's Chief Minister. However, he never attained the same level of power as Wolsey, as Henry became more directly involved in government affairs.

The marriage to Anne Boleyn, however, did not produce the desired male heir. After giving birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, and suffering two miscarriages, Anne fell out of favor with Henry. Accused of adultery with five men and witchcraft, Anne was executed in 1536, marking a dramatic turn in Henry's marital affairs and religious policy.

Highlight: Cromwell's legal maneuvering not only solved Henry's immediate problem but also laid the groundwork for the English Reformation and the establishment of the Church of England.

Wolsey's Domestic and Foreign Policies

Cardinal Wolsey, as Henry VIII's chief minister, implemented several significant domestic and foreign policies during his tenure.

Domestically, Wolsey introduced reforms aimed at improving justice and administration. He expanded the use of the Star Chamber, a court designed to provide royal justice to all levels of society, not just the wealthy. This move was intended to ensure fair treatment for common people, though Wolsey also used it to target political opponents.

Wolsey also addressed the issue of enclosure, where landlords were fencing off land previously accessible to the poor. In 1517, he launched an inquiry and brought 260 cases to court, demonstrating his concern for social issues.

To improve the royal finances, Wolsey introduced a new tax system called the subsidy, based on a person's income. This system raised £170,000 between 1513 and 1516, though it still fell short of funding Henry's military ambitions.

Highlight: Wolsey's domestic policies aimed to improve justice, address social issues, and increase royal revenue, but they were not always successful or popular.

In foreign policy, Wolsey sought to establish England as a major player in European affairs. He orchestrated the Treaty of London in 1518, an attempt to bring peace between Henry VIII, Francis I of France, Charles V of Spain, and 17 other rulers. This treaty positioned Henry as a great peacemaker on the European stage.

Example: The Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 was a lavish meeting between Henry VIII and Francis I, showcasing England's wealth and power, though it resulted in no significant diplomatic agreements.

Wolsey's foreign policy also involved shifting alliances. After initially allying with Charles V against France, England later signed the Treaty of More in 1525, aligning with France. This was followed by joining the League of Cognac in 1526 against Charles V, demonstrating Wolsey's attempts to balance power in Europe.

Vocabulary: Papal Legate - A representative of the Pope, a position Wolsey held from 1518, enhancing his ecclesiastical authority.