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How Detectives Solve Mysteries: Profiling and Psychology

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user profile picture

libby Moxey

7/29/2025

Psychology

Bottom up approach of offender profiling

546

•

Jul 29, 2025

•

3 pages

How Detectives Solve Mysteries: Profiling and Psychology

user profile picture

libby Moxey

@libby_moxey

Bottom-up offender profiling techniques, developed by David Canter, use data-driven... Show more

Bottom-up approach - offender profiling • British approach • David Canter develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics and motivation

Canter's Circle Theory and Offender Models

Canter's circle theory, developed by Canter and Larkin, proposes two models of offending based on imagined boundaries within which the offender operates:

  1. The Marauder: Offends close to home.
  2. The Commuter: Likely to travel a distance from their home.

These models provide insights into whether a crime is planned or spontaneous and can reveal personal factors such as transport access, age, and employment status.

Evaluation of the bottom-up approach reveals both strengths and limitations:

Strengths:

  1. Supports investigative psychology: Canter and Heritage (1990) found common characteristics in sexual assault cases, allowing police to predict offender behavior.
  2. Evidence-based: Lundrigan and Canter (2001) provided supporting evidence for geographical profiling in serial killer cases.

Example: Canter and Heritage's study of 66 sexual assault cases revealed common characteristics such as interpersonal language use and lack of reaction towards the victim, aiding in predicting offender behavior.

Highlight: The bottom-up approach's strength lies in its ability to use statistical analysis to identify patterns in criminal behavior, supporting the principles of investigative psychology.

Bottom-up approach - offender profiling • British approach • David Canter develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics and motivation

Limitations of Bottom-Up Profiling in Criminal Investigations

Despite its strengths, the bottom-up approach to offender profiling has several significant limitations in criminal investigations:

  1. Overly specific profiles: The Rachel Nickell case in 1992 demonstrates how small errors in profiling can lead to wrongful arrests, as the real killer's height differed slightly from the profile's prediction.

  2. Limited accuracy in identification: Copson (1995) found that while profiler advice was judged useful in 83% of cases, it only led to accurate identification in 3% of cases.

  3. Questionable effectiveness compared to intuitive methods: Kocsis et al. (2002) discovered that chemistry students could produce more accurate offender profiles than experienced senior detectives using the bottom-up approach.

Example: In the Rachel Nickell case, the wrong man was arrested due to a minor height discrepancy in the profile, with the real killer not convicted until 2008.

Highlight: These limitations suggest that while the bottom-up approach can provide useful insights, its accuracy and effectiveness in identifying offenders may be limited compared to other methods.

Quote: "Copson (1995) found that advice from profilers was judged as useful in 83% of cases but it only led to accurate identification in 3% of cases."

These findings indicate that while bottom-up offender profiling techniques can offer valuable perspectives in criminal investigations, they should be used in conjunction with other investigative methods to ensure a comprehensive and accurate approach to solving crimes.

Bottom-up approach - offender profiling • British approach • David Canter develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics and motivation

Bottom-Up Approach to Offender Profiling

The bottom-up approach to offender profiling, also known as the British approach, was developed by David Canter. This method uses data-driven techniques to develop hypotheses about offender characteristics and motivations. It incorporates investigative psychology and geographical profiling to analyze crime scenes and predict offender behavior.

Key components of investigative psychology include:

  1. Interpersonal coherence: Analyzing how the offender behaves at the crime scene.
  2. Significance of time and place: Indicating where the offender might be living.
  3. Forensic awareness: Assessing if the offender has been subject to police interrogation before.

Geographical profiling is a crucial aspect of this approach, involving:

  1. Crime mapping: Recording locations of linked offenses.
  2. Predicting future crime locations using "Jeopardy surface" analysis.
  3. Identifying the "centre of gravity" where offenders restrict their crimes to familiar areas.

Example: John Duffy's case demonstrates the successful application of geographical profiling in criminal investigations.

Highlight: The bottom-up approach to offender profiling combines psychological analysis with geographical data to create a comprehensive understanding of criminal behavior patterns.



We thought you’d never ask...

What is the Knowunity AI companion?

Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.

Where can I download the Knowunity app?

You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.

Is Knowunity really free of charge?

That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.

Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.

Students love us — and so will you.

4.9/5

App Store

4.8/5

Google Play

The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.

Stefan S

iOS user

This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.

Anna

iOS user

I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️

Thomas R

iOS user

Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades

Brad T

Android user

Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍

David K

iOS user

The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend

Aubrey

iOS user

Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀

Marco B

iOS user

THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!

Paul T

iOS user

The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.

Stefan S

iOS user

This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.

Anna

iOS user

I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️

Thomas R

iOS user

Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades

Brad T

Android user

Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍

David K

iOS user

The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend

Aubrey

iOS user

Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀

Marco B

iOS user

THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!

Paul T

iOS user

 

Psychology

•

546

•

Jul 29, 2025

•

3 pages

How Detectives Solve Mysteries: Profiling and Psychology

user profile picture

libby Moxey

@libby_moxey

Bottom-up offender profiling techniques, developed by David Canter, use data-driven approaches to understand criminal behavior. This method incorporates investigative psychology and geographical profilingto analyze crime scenes, predict offender characteristics, and map criminal activities. While it has shown success in... Show more

Bottom-up approach - offender profiling • British approach • David Canter develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics and motivation

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

Canter's Circle Theory and Offender Models

Canter's circle theory, developed by Canter and Larkin, proposes two models of offending based on imagined boundaries within which the offender operates:

  1. The Marauder: Offends close to home.
  2. The Commuter: Likely to travel a distance from their home.

These models provide insights into whether a crime is planned or spontaneous and can reveal personal factors such as transport access, age, and employment status.

Evaluation of the bottom-up approach reveals both strengths and limitations:

Strengths:

  1. Supports investigative psychology: Canter and Heritage (1990) found common characteristics in sexual assault cases, allowing police to predict offender behavior.
  2. Evidence-based: Lundrigan and Canter (2001) provided supporting evidence for geographical profiling in serial killer cases.

Example: Canter and Heritage's study of 66 sexual assault cases revealed common characteristics such as interpersonal language use and lack of reaction towards the victim, aiding in predicting offender behavior.

Highlight: The bottom-up approach's strength lies in its ability to use statistical analysis to identify patterns in criminal behavior, supporting the principles of investigative psychology.

Bottom-up approach - offender profiling • British approach • David Canter develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics and motivation

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

Limitations of Bottom-Up Profiling in Criminal Investigations

Despite its strengths, the bottom-up approach to offender profiling has several significant limitations in criminal investigations:

  1. Overly specific profiles: The Rachel Nickell case in 1992 demonstrates how small errors in profiling can lead to wrongful arrests, as the real killer's height differed slightly from the profile's prediction.

  2. Limited accuracy in identification: Copson (1995) found that while profiler advice was judged useful in 83% of cases, it only led to accurate identification in 3% of cases.

  3. Questionable effectiveness compared to intuitive methods: Kocsis et al. (2002) discovered that chemistry students could produce more accurate offender profiles than experienced senior detectives using the bottom-up approach.

Example: In the Rachel Nickell case, the wrong man was arrested due to a minor height discrepancy in the profile, with the real killer not convicted until 2008.

Highlight: These limitations suggest that while the bottom-up approach can provide useful insights, its accuracy and effectiveness in identifying offenders may be limited compared to other methods.

Quote: "Copson (1995) found that advice from profilers was judged as useful in 83% of cases but it only led to accurate identification in 3% of cases."

These findings indicate that while bottom-up offender profiling techniques can offer valuable perspectives in criminal investigations, they should be used in conjunction with other investigative methods to ensure a comprehensive and accurate approach to solving crimes.

Bottom-up approach - offender profiling • British approach • David Canter develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics and motivation

Bottom-Up Approach to Offender Profiling

The bottom-up approach to offender profiling, also known as the British approach, was developed by David Canter. This method uses data-driven techniques to develop hypotheses about offender characteristics and motivations. It incorporates investigative psychology and geographical profiling to analyze crime scenes and predict offender behavior.

Key components of investigative psychology include:

  1. Interpersonal coherence: Analyzing how the offender behaves at the crime scene.
  2. Significance of time and place: Indicating where the offender might be living.
  3. Forensic awareness: Assessing if the offender has been subject to police interrogation before.

Geographical profiling is a crucial aspect of this approach, involving:

  1. Crime mapping: Recording locations of linked offenses.
  2. Predicting future crime locations using "Jeopardy surface" analysis.
  3. Identifying the "centre of gravity" where offenders restrict their crimes to familiar areas.

Example: John Duffy's case demonstrates the successful application of geographical profiling in criminal investigations.

Highlight: The bottom-up approach to offender profiling combines psychological analysis with geographical data to create a comprehensive understanding of criminal behavior patterns.

We thought you’d never ask...

What is the Knowunity AI companion?

Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.

Where can I download the Knowunity app?

You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.

Is Knowunity really free of charge?

That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.

Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.

Students love us — and so will you.

4.9/5

App Store

4.8/5

Google Play

The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.

Stefan S

iOS user

This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.

Anna

iOS user

I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️

Thomas R

iOS user

Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades

Brad T

Android user

Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍

David K

iOS user

The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend

Aubrey

iOS user

Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀

Marco B

iOS user

THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!

Paul T

iOS user

The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.

Stefan S

iOS user

This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.

Anna

iOS user

I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️

Thomas R

iOS user

Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades

Brad T

Android user

Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍

David K

iOS user

The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend

Aubrey

iOS user

Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀

Marco B

iOS user

THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!

Paul T

iOS user