America's Imperial Expansion

America abandoned its long-standing isolationism in the late 19th century to become an imperial power. After the Spanish-American War, the U.S. gained significant control over Cuba, annexed Hawaii, and claimed territories including Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. This expansion was driven by both economic interests—seeking new markets for industrial products—and a belief in American cultural superiority.

The Panama Canal Zone acquisition exemplifies this imperial approach. In 1903, after recognizing the new Republic of Panama, America secured exclusive possession of the Canal Zone through the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, paying Panama $10 million plus a$250,000 annual payment beginning nine years later. The canal would become a vital strategic asset demonstrating American power.

Different presidents developed distinct foreign policy approaches during this era. Theodore Roosevelt advocated for military strength and increased American intervention in Latin America through his "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine. Woodrow Wilson later introduced "Moral Diplomacy," supporting only countries whose values aligned with American beliefs.

Quick Insight: The Open Door Policy in China perfectly shows how foreign policy and economic interests worked together. While promoting equal trade access for all nations in China, it primarily served to boost American business opportunities and exports abroad.

Economic Dimensions of Foreign Policy

Foreign and economic policies often complemented each other during America's rise as a global power. Dollar Diplomacy under President Taft (1909-1913) used American money to fund infrastructure in countries like Honduras and Nicaragua, creating opportunities for U.S. businesses while extending American influence. This approach directly connected economic expansion with foreign policy goals.

In the 1920s, protectionist tariff policies like the Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922) and Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930) were implemented to protect American industries from foreign competition. While these measures aimed to protect American jobs, they often triggered retaliatory tariffs from other countries that harmed U.S. exports.

The Open Door Policy, first proposed in 1899, had the major goal of promoting equal trade opportunities for all countries in China. America was concerned about being excluded from China's markets as European powers and Japan established their spheres of influence. The policy called for respecting China's territorial integrity while keeping trade open to all nations equally, becoming a cornerstone of U.S. policy toward China for decades.

Did You Know? While the Open Door Policy was presented as promoting fair trade for all nations, it primarily served American interests by preventing other powers from monopolizing Chinese markets that U.S. businesses wanted to access.

The Spanish-American War & Latin American Relations

The Spanish-American War (1898) marked a turning point in American imperialism. After victory, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and gave the U.S. control of Guam and Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines (purchased for $20 million). This rapid territorial expansion demonstrated America's new willingness to project power globally.

Yellow journalism played a crucial role in generating public support for the war. Newspapers used sensational stories that appealed to readers' emotions, notably blaming Spain for the sinking of the U.S.S. Maine in Havana harbor without evidence. This demonstrated how media could influence foreign policy by shaping public opinion.

Theodore Roosevelt's approach to Latin America was characterized by his famous "Big Stick" diplomacy—speaking softly but carrying a big stick to demonstrate American power. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine assumed the right of the U.S. to intervene in Caribbean affairs when deemed necessary. Unlike the original Monroe Doctrine that aimed to protect the Americas from European interference, the Corollary justified American intervention in other nations' affairs.

Connect the Dots: Roosevelt's interventionist approach in Latin America faced criticism from two opposing camps—those who believed Latin American nations were capable of self-governance, and those who didn't want America entangled with what they considered "inferior" races. These contrasting views reflected the complex racial attitudes of the era.

Roosevelt, Canal Building, and Interventionism

The construction of the Panama Canal was motivated by both strategic and symbolic goals. Building the canal would dramatically shorten the shipping route between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts while demonstrating America's technological and engineering prowess to the world. This project became Roosevelt's most famous intervention in Latin America.

Roosevelt believed U.S. intervention in Latin America was justified to protect American interests and promote regional stability. While he sent troops to intervene in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua, he also recognized the importance of respecting their sovereignty when possible. This balanced approach characterized his foreign policy in the region.

The Open Door Policy encouraged American companies to engage with foreign markets for profit. However, critics argued it didn't go far enough—some wanted greater American investment in projects like Chinese railroad construction to counterbalance growing Japanese influence in the region. These debates highlighted tensions between different visions of American economic expansion.

Important Context: As World War I erupted in Europe, President Wilson initially maintained a policy of strict neutrality. This approach aligned with America's traditional reluctance to become entangled in European conflicts, though this position would eventually prove impossible to maintain as the war progressed.

America and World War I

America's entry into World War I came after Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare campaign targeted American ships and the intercepted Zimmermann Telegram revealed Germany's attempt to persuade Mexico to join the war against the U.S. These provocations forced President Wilson to abandon neutrality and request a declaration of war from Congress in April 1917.

In his war message to Congress, Wilson framed American involvement as a moral obligation to "make the world safe for democracy." He emphasized protecting American lives and upholding principles of freedom and justice. This idealistic framing helped generate public support for what had initially been an unpopular war.

The war effort dramatically increased government involvement in the economy. New agencies like the War Industries Board and National War Labor Board were created, while the government raised taxes, issued war bonds, and imposed price controls and rationing. These measures represented unprecedented federal economic management.

Think About It: While fighting to "make the world safe for democracy" abroad, the U.S. government significantly restricted civil liberties at home through the Espionage and Sedition Acts, which limited free speech and allowed for the imprisonment of war critics. This contradiction shows how wartime priorities often clash with democratic values.

Wilson's Fourteen Points peace proposal called for a just and lasting peace based on free trade, disarmament, and national self-determination. His vision included establishing the League of Nations as a forum for international cooperation, though ironically the U.S. Senate later refused to join the organization, fearing it would limit American sovereignty and independence in foreign affairs.

Post-War Settlement and Policy Evolution

President Wilson worried that harsh peace terms after WWI would lead to future conflict. His concerns proved prophetic—the Treaty of Versailles imposed heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany, creating resentment that contributed to the rise of fascism and eventually World War II. Wilson's inability to secure a more balanced settlement represented a significant diplomatic failure.

U.S. foreign policy between 1898-1917 showed a striking contrast between regions. In Europe, America maintained a neutral stance until WWI, while simultaneously pursuing an interventionist, imperialistic approach in Latin America and Asia. This dual policy reflected strategic priorities and the perception that European affairs required more diplomatic caution than dealings with less powerful nations.

The period introduced several important foreign policy concepts that would shape American thinking for decades to come. Internationalism advocated cooperation among nations for global peace and security, while isolationism argued for avoiding foreign entanglements entirely. The concept of collective security—mutual defense against external aggression—became central to Wilson's League of Nations proposal.

Key Perspective: The tension between imperialism (controlling other nations through territorial or economic domination) and moral diplomacy (supporting countries with similar beliefs) reflected America's struggle to reconcile its democratic ideals with its growing global ambitions. This contradiction continues to influence U.S. foreign policy debates today.

Key Concepts in American Foreign Policy

America's approach to international relations during this period introduced several influential diplomatic strategies. Dollar Diplomacy used economic influence to advance U.S. interests abroad, while establishing spheres of influence allowed dominant foreign powers to control territories or regions. The Platt Amendment imposed restrictions on Cuban sovereignty, demonstrating how the U.S. maintained control even after granting nominal independence.

The idea of Manifest Destiny—the 19th-century belief that U.S. expansion was justified and inevitable—evolved into new forms of imperialism. Meanwhile, propaganda and yellow journalism helped shape public opinion to support foreign interventions, showing the growing importance of media in foreign policy.

Historic documents like the Monroe Doctrine (warning European powers against interfering in the Americas) and Washington's Farewell Address (advising against foreign alliances) provided the foundation for American foreign policy thinking. However, this period marked a dramatic departure from Washington's isolationist vision as America embraced a more active global role.

Bigger Picture: The Supreme Court case Schenck v. United States (1919) upheld the conviction of a socialist who distributed anti-draft pamphlets during WWI, establishing that free speech could be limited during wartime. This ruling highlighted the tension between national security concerns and constitutional rights that emerges during international conflicts.