Subjects
Biology
Chemistry
AP Chemistry
English
AP English Literature
Biology
Dec 2, 2025
89
4 pages
Maithy Smith @maithysmith
DNA is the blueprint of life, containing all the instructions your body needs to build and maintain itself.... Show more
Ever wonder how all the instructions for your entire body fit inside tiny cells? The answer lies in DNA's clever design! DNA is made of building blocks called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains three parts a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base.
The four types of nitrogen bases in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). These bases form the "rungs" of DNA's ladder-like structure. The sides of the ladder (the "backbone") are made of alternating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar molecules connected by strong covalent bonds.
What makes DNA special is how these bases pair up. They follow a strict rule adenine always pairs with thymine (using 2 hydrogen bonds), and guanine always pairs with cytosine (using 3 hydrogen bonds). This is called the complementary base-pair rule.
Fun Fact DNA's actual shape isn't a flat ladder but a twisted double helix that looks similar to a spiral staircase. This structure was discovered by Watson and Crick based on Rosalind Franklin's X-ray work!
When you look closely at DNA, you'll notice something interesting about how the two strands fit together. The strands are antiparallel, meaning they run in opposite directions. Think of it like two friends walking side-by-side but facing opposite ways.
The base pairing in DNA follows strict rules. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) using two hydrogen bonds. Guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C) using three hydrogen bonds. This precise pairing is crucial for DNA to function properly.
These hydrogen bonds are fairly weak compared to other chemical bonds. That's actually important! The bonds need to be strong enough to keep DNA together during normal cell activities, but weak enough to be broken when DNA needs to be copied.
When scientists write out DNA sequences, they can determine the complementary strand by following these pairing rules. For example, if one strand reads ATCCAG, the complementary strand must be TAGGTC.
Try This Take any sequence of letters using only A, T, G, and C (like AATGCC) and try writing out its complementary strand following the base-pairing rules!
Your body creates trillions of new cells throughout your life, and each one needs a complete copy of your DNA. How does this happen? Through a process called DNA replication that works like a biological photocopy machine!
The process begins when an enzyme called DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs, unzipping the DNA like a jacket. As the strands separate, free nucleotides floating in the cell are attracted to the exposed bases following the complementary base-pair rule. Adenine attaches to thymine, and guanine attaches to cytosine.
This type of replication is called semi-conservative because each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one newly created strand. "Semi" means half, and "conservative" refers to keeping part of the original DNA.
Think About It DNA replication is incredibly accurate, with only about one mistake per billion base pairs! That's like typing out the entire Harry Potter series three times with only one typo.
DNA works the same way in all living things, but the exact makeup can vary between species. The percentages of bases follow patterns - if you know the percentage of adenine, you automatically know the percentage of thymine (they're equal), and the same goes for guanine and cytosine.
For example, human DNA contains 31% adenine, which means it also has 31% thymine (its partner). Similarly, our DNA has 19% guanine and 19% cytosine. These proportions stay consistent within a species but vary between different organisms like cows, salmon, and yeast.
Semi-conservative replication helps prevent mutations (changes in DNA) because each new strand is built using an existing strand as a template. This provides a reliable pattern to follow, ensuring accuracy. When mutations do occur, they can sometimes cause problems for the organism.
Cool Connection Even though humans and yeast look nothing alike, they have identical proportions of DNA bases . This shows our deep evolutionary connections despite appearing very different!
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
1
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Notes detailing the basics of chromosomes in genetics and biology.
BiologyThese notes review the process of Mitosis and what the result is
BiologyBiology - learn about, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase, meiosis I and II, sexual reproduction, chromosomes, zygote, cytokinesis, genetic variation, adaptation, mitosis vs meiosis, haploid, diploid.
BiologyDNA Notes that is about Deoxyribonucleic Acid
BiologyBio notes
BiologyFour stages of the cell cycle, cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are the topics discussed here.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Maithy Smith
@maithysmith
DNA is the blueprint of life, containing all the instructions your body needs to build and maintain itself. In this study guide, we'll explore DNA's unique structure and how it manages to copy itself with remarkable accuracy during replication -... Show more
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
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Ever wonder how all the instructions for your entire body fit inside tiny cells? The answer lies in DNA's clever design! DNA is made of building blocks called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains three parts: a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base.
The four types of nitrogen bases in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). These bases form the "rungs" of DNA's ladder-like structure. The sides of the ladder (the "backbone") are made of alternating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar molecules connected by strong covalent bonds.
What makes DNA special is how these bases pair up. They follow a strict rule: adenine always pairs with thymine (using 2 hydrogen bonds), and guanine always pairs with cytosine (using 3 hydrogen bonds). This is called the complementary base-pair rule.
Fun Fact: DNA's actual shape isn't a flat ladder but a twisted double helix that looks similar to a spiral staircase. This structure was discovered by Watson and Crick based on Rosalind Franklin's X-ray work!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
When you look closely at DNA, you'll notice something interesting about how the two strands fit together. The strands are antiparallel, meaning they run in opposite directions. Think of it like two friends walking side-by-side but facing opposite ways.
The base pairing in DNA follows strict rules. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) using two hydrogen bonds. Guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C) using three hydrogen bonds. This precise pairing is crucial for DNA to function properly.
These hydrogen bonds are fairly weak compared to other chemical bonds. That's actually important! The bonds need to be strong enough to keep DNA together during normal cell activities, but weak enough to be broken when DNA needs to be copied.
When scientists write out DNA sequences, they can determine the complementary strand by following these pairing rules. For example, if one strand reads ATCCAG, the complementary strand must be TAGGTC.
Try This: Take any sequence of letters using only A, T, G, and C (like AATGCC) and try writing out its complementary strand following the base-pairing rules!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Your body creates trillions of new cells throughout your life, and each one needs a complete copy of your DNA. How does this happen? Through a process called DNA replication that works like a biological photocopy machine!
The process begins when an enzyme called DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs, unzipping the DNA like a jacket. As the strands separate, free nucleotides floating in the cell are attracted to the exposed bases following the complementary base-pair rule. Adenine attaches to thymine, and guanine attaches to cytosine.
This type of replication is called semi-conservative because each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one newly created strand. "Semi" means half, and "conservative" refers to keeping part of the original DNA.
Think About It: DNA replication is incredibly accurate, with only about one mistake per billion base pairs! That's like typing out the entire Harry Potter series three times with only one typo.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
DNA works the same way in all living things, but the exact makeup can vary between species. The percentages of bases follow patterns - if you know the percentage of adenine, you automatically know the percentage of thymine (they're equal), and the same goes for guanine and cytosine.
For example, human DNA contains 31% adenine, which means it also has 31% thymine (its partner). Similarly, our DNA has 19% guanine and 19% cytosine. These proportions stay consistent within a species but vary between different organisms like cows, salmon, and yeast.
Semi-conservative replication helps prevent mutations (changes in DNA) because each new strand is built using an existing strand as a template. This provides a reliable pattern to follow, ensuring accuracy. When mutations do occur, they can sometimes cause problems for the organism.
Cool Connection: Even though humans and yeast look nothing alike, they have identical proportions of DNA bases . This shows our deep evolutionary connections despite appearing very different!
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
1
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Notes detailing the basics of chromosomes in genetics and biology.
BiologyThese notes review the process of Mitosis and what the result is
BiologyBiology - learn about, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase, meiosis I and II, sexual reproduction, chromosomes, zygote, cytokinesis, genetic variation, adaptation, mitosis vs meiosis, haploid, diploid.
BiologyDNA Notes that is about Deoxyribonucleic Acid
BiologyBio notes
BiologyFour stages of the cell cycle, cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are the topics discussed here.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
