Subjects
Biology
Chemistry
AP Chemistry
English
AP English Literature
Biology
Nov 27, 2025
138
3 pages
Yujun Ge @yujunge_vslm
Genetics becomes less mysterious once you understand how traits are passed from generation to generation. Gregor Mendel, often... Show more
Mendel's experimental approach was brilliantly simple yet effective. He first created "true-breeding" plants (the "P" generation) through self-pollination to ensure genetic purity. Next, he cross-pollinated these plants to produce the "F1" generation, and finally allowed the F1 plants to self-pollinate, creating the "F2" generation. His famous purple and white flower experiment revealed a 31 ratio in the F2 generation—a pattern that would become foundational to genetics.
When studying genetics, you'll encounter several key terms. An allele is simply one version of a gene . Everyone has two alleles for each trait, and we pass one of these to our offspring. Dominant alleles (written with capital letters) show themselves even when paired with a different allele, while recessive alleles (lowercase letters) only show when two copies are present.
The difference between phenotype (what you can observe—like blue eyes) and genotype (the actual genetic code—like "Bb") is crucial for understanding inheritance patterns. Genotypes can be either homozygous (two identical alleles, like BB or bb) or heterozygous (different alleles, like Bb).
💡 Think of dominance like this if a dominant trait is like a loud speaker and a recessive trait is like a whisper, you'll only hear the whisper when there's no loud speaker present!
A monohybrid cross follows just one trait through generations, making it easier to understand inheritance patterns. To predict the outcomes of such crosses, geneticists use Punnett squares—simple diagrams that help visualize possible combinations of alleles from each parent.
Creating a Punnett square is straightforward first, determine what possible genetic contributions (gametes) each parent can make. Then place one parent's gametes across the top and the other's along the left side. Finally, fill in each box with the combined alleles. The resulting diagram shows both the genotypic ratio (the proportion of different genetic combinations) and the phenotypic ratio (the proportion of observable traits).
When you're trying to determine an unknown genotype, you can perform a test cross. This involves breeding the unknown individual with one that has a homozygous recessive genotype. If all offspring show the dominant trait, your unknown specimen is probably homozygous dominant. However, if some offspring show the recessive trait, the unknown parent must be heterozygous.
🔍 Punnett squares are like genetic calculators! They might seem tedious at first, but they'll soon become your go-to tool for predicting inheritance patterns on tests.
Test crosses are powerful tools in genetics that help identify mystery genotypes. When you cross an organism showing a dominant trait (which could be either homozygous dominant or heterozygous) with a homozygous recessive individual, the results reveal the unknown genotype.
The key to interpreting test cross results is in the offspring patterns. If 100% of the offspring display the dominant trait, the unknown parent is likely homozygous dominant. But if any offspring shows the recessive trait, you can confidently determine that the unknown parent is heterozygous.
🧪 Think of a test cross as genetic detective work! By choosing the right "interrogation partner" (the homozygous recessive), you can get your mystery organism to reveal its genetic secrets.
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
9
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
These are notes from the genetics unit of biology
BiologyNotes about the factors of the immune system, including pathogens (treatment, the types, etc), the body's line of defenses, diseases, primary and secondary immune responses, forms of immunity, vaccine activation, and autoimmune diseases.
BiologyHonors Biology notes
Biologygenerations, important terms
BiologyPLTW Principles of Biomedical Science (PBS) Notes and answers of activity 1.1.6
Healthpresentation on the photosynthesis process
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Yujun Ge
@yujunge_vslm
Genetics becomes less mysterious once you understand how traits are passed from generation to generation. Gregor Mendel, often called the "Father of Genetics," developed methods that revealed the patterns of inheritance we still use today to understand everything from eye... Show more
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Mendel's experimental approach was brilliantly simple yet effective. He first created "true-breeding" plants (the "P" generation) through self-pollination to ensure genetic purity. Next, he cross-pollinated these plants to produce the "F1" generation, and finally allowed the F1 plants to self-pollinate, creating the "F2" generation. His famous purple and white flower experiment revealed a 3:1 ratio in the F2 generation—a pattern that would become foundational to genetics.
When studying genetics, you'll encounter several key terms. An allele is simply one version of a gene . Everyone has two alleles for each trait, and we pass one of these to our offspring. Dominant alleles (written with capital letters) show themselves even when paired with a different allele, while recessive alleles (lowercase letters) only show when two copies are present.
The difference between phenotype (what you can observe—like blue eyes) and genotype (the actual genetic code—like "Bb") is crucial for understanding inheritance patterns. Genotypes can be either homozygous (two identical alleles, like BB or bb) or heterozygous (different alleles, like Bb).
💡 Think of dominance like this: if a dominant trait is like a loud speaker and a recessive trait is like a whisper, you'll only hear the whisper when there's no loud speaker present!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
A monohybrid cross follows just one trait through generations, making it easier to understand inheritance patterns. To predict the outcomes of such crosses, geneticists use Punnett squares—simple diagrams that help visualize possible combinations of alleles from each parent.
Creating a Punnett square is straightforward: first, determine what possible genetic contributions (gametes) each parent can make. Then place one parent's gametes across the top and the other's along the left side. Finally, fill in each box with the combined alleles. The resulting diagram shows both the genotypic ratio (the proportion of different genetic combinations) and the phenotypic ratio (the proportion of observable traits).
When you're trying to determine an unknown genotype, you can perform a test cross. This involves breeding the unknown individual with one that has a homozygous recessive genotype. If all offspring show the dominant trait, your unknown specimen is probably homozygous dominant. However, if some offspring show the recessive trait, the unknown parent must be heterozygous.
🔍 Punnett squares are like genetic calculators! They might seem tedious at first, but they'll soon become your go-to tool for predicting inheritance patterns on tests.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Test crosses are powerful tools in genetics that help identify mystery genotypes. When you cross an organism showing a dominant trait (which could be either homozygous dominant or heterozygous) with a homozygous recessive individual, the results reveal the unknown genotype.
The key to interpreting test cross results is in the offspring patterns. If 100% of the offspring display the dominant trait, the unknown parent is likely homozygous dominant. But if any offspring shows the recessive trait, you can confidently determine that the unknown parent is heterozygous.
🧪 Think of a test cross as genetic detective work! By choosing the right "interrogation partner" (the homozygous recessive), you can get your mystery organism to reveal its genetic secrets.
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
9
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
These are notes from the genetics unit of biology
BiologyNotes about the factors of the immune system, including pathogens (treatment, the types, etc), the body's line of defenses, diseases, primary and secondary immune responses, forms of immunity, vaccine activation, and autoimmune diseases.
BiologyHonors Biology notes
Biologygenerations, important terms
BiologyPLTW Principles of Biomedical Science (PBS) Notes and answers of activity 1.1.6
Healthpresentation on the photosynthesis process
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
