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Foundations of Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry focuses on carbon compounds because carbon's location and low atomic mass make it perfect for forming biological compounds. The field has a rich history starting with Jons Jakob Berzelius who first used the term "organic" in 1808, followed by Friedrich Wohler's groundbreaking conversion of an inorganic salt to urea in 1828, proving organic compounds could be synthesized.
Friedrich Kekule made a crucial discovery in 1858 that carbon has 4 valences and can unite with itself through catenation. Later, Gilbert N. Lewis introduced the concept of covalent bonds formed by sharing electrons between atoms.
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter, with electrons arranged in specific configurations. These arrangements include s orbitals (one per shell) and p orbitals (three per shell starting at shell 2), which determine how atoms bond with each other.
Did you know? The ability of carbon to form bonds with itself (catenation) is what allows for the incredible diversity of organic molecules - from simple methane to complex DNA!
Chemical Bonding and Hybridization
Lewis dot structures, developed by Gilbert N. Lewis, show how electrons are arranged in molecules. When atoms gain electrons, they form anions; when they lose electrons, they become cations. The attraction between these oppositely charged ions creates ionic bonds, while covalent bonds form when atoms share electron pairs.
Chemical bonds can form in multiple ways. Single bonds are sigma (σ) bonds with sp³ hybridization. Double bonds consist of one sigma and one pi (π) bond with sp² hybridization. Triple bonds include one sigma and two pi bonds with sp hybridization.
Each type of hybridization creates a specific molecular geometry. The sp hybrid orbital has a linear shape with a 180° bond angle, sp² creates a trigonal shape with 120° bond angles, and sp³ forms a tetrahedral structure with 109.5° bond angles.
Remember: The type of hybridization determines a molecule's shape, which directly affects its chemical properties and how it interacts with other molecules!
Hybridization and Molecular Structure
Hybridization is the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals to create new hybrid orbitals. You can determine hybridization by counting the total valence electrons (TVE). For atoms with 8 or fewer valence electrons: 2 connections means sp, 3 connections means sp², and 4 connections means sp³.
Another simple method to determine hybridization is to count both the number of atoms connected to the central atom and the lone pairs attached to it, then add them together. This sum tells you the type of hybridization present.
Steric effects are non-bonding interactions that influence the shape and reactivity of molecules. These effects depend on the number of bonds attached to an atom and help determine molecular geometry. For example, a carbon with 4 steric values has sp³ hybridization, while a carbon with 2 steric values has sp² hybridization.
Quick tip: When analyzing molecular structure, think of hybridization as the "blueprint" that determines how atoms will arrange themselves in 3D space!
Formal Charge, Bond Order, and Alkanes
Formal charge helps track electrons in molecules and equals the number of valence electrons minus non-bonded electrons and bonds. For example, in BH₄, boron has a formal charge of -1. Bond order indicates bond stability—higher bond orders mean stronger bonds with greater electron attraction.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms. They're also called paraffins and serve as the main source of natural gas. These compounds follow specific naming conventions based on the IUPAC system.
When naming alkanes, we identify the longest continuous carbon chain and number it to give the lowest possible numbers to substituents. For example, 4-heptane has a main seven-carbon chain (heptane) with a substituted group at the fourth position.
Study strategy: When naming complex organic molecules, always identify the longest carbon chain first, then work on naming and positioning the substituents!
Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Cyclic hydrocarbons form ring structures with the formula CₙH₂ₙ. When naming cycloalkanes, the prefix "cyclo" indicates the ring structure, followed by the alkane name based on the number of carbons in the ring. Substituents on the ring are given position numbers to identify their locations.
For example, methylcyclopentane has a cyclopentane ring (5 carbons) with a methyl group attached. When there are multiple substituents, numbers indicate their positions around the ring, like in 1-bromo-3-ethyl-5-methylcyclohexane.
Bicyclic alkanes contain two rings that share at least one carbon atom. They're named using the prefix "bicyclo" followed by numbers in brackets that indicate the number of carbons in each bridge, arranged in decreasing length. For instance, bicyclooctane has bridges containing 4, 2, and 0 carbon atoms.
Visual tip: Think of cycloalkanes like bicycle wheels and bicyclic alkanes like two wheels connected together at one or more points!
Complex Cyclic Structures and Alkane Properties
Spirocyclic alkanes have two rings joined at a single carbon atom. When naming these compounds, use "spiro" followed by the ring sizes in square brackets, like 1,6-dimethyl spirodecane, which has 4-carbon and 5-carbon rings connected by a shared carbon.
The physical properties of alkanes depend on their structure. As carbon chain length increases in continuous chain alkanes and cycloalkanes, their boiling and melting points rise. However, branching on a carbon chain actually lowers the boiling point compared to straight-chain isomers.
Cycloalkanes generally have higher boiling points than their non-cyclic counterparts. When it comes to solubility, alkanes follow the principle of "like dissolves like." They're non-polar and hydrophobic, meaning they dissolve well in other non-polar solvents but poorly in water.
Application note: Understanding alkane properties helps explain why oil doesn't mix with water and why gasoline (a mixture of various alkanes) works as a fuel!
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Anna
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I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
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Brad T
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The Fascinating History of Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds, central to all biological molecules. Carbon's unique ability to form bonds with itself and other elements makes it the backbone of complex molecules essential to life, and understanding its properties is key... Show more
Foundations of Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry focuses on carbon compounds because carbon's location and low atomic mass make it perfect for forming biological compounds. The field has a rich history starting with Jons Jakob Berzelius who first used the term "organic" in 1808, followed by Friedrich Wohler's groundbreaking conversion of an inorganic salt to urea in 1828, proving organic compounds could be synthesized.
Friedrich Kekule made a crucial discovery in 1858 that carbon has 4 valences and can unite with itself through catenation. Later, Gilbert N. Lewis introduced the concept of covalent bonds formed by sharing electrons between atoms.
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter, with electrons arranged in specific configurations. These arrangements include s orbitals (one per shell) and p orbitals (three per shell starting at shell 2), which determine how atoms bond with each other.
Did you know? The ability of carbon to form bonds with itself (catenation) is what allows for the incredible diversity of organic molecules - from simple methane to complex DNA!
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Chemical Bonding and Hybridization
Lewis dot structures, developed by Gilbert N. Lewis, show how electrons are arranged in molecules. When atoms gain electrons, they form anions; when they lose electrons, they become cations. The attraction between these oppositely charged ions creates ionic bonds, while covalent bonds form when atoms share electron pairs.
Chemical bonds can form in multiple ways. Single bonds are sigma (σ) bonds with sp³ hybridization. Double bonds consist of one sigma and one pi (π) bond with sp² hybridization. Triple bonds include one sigma and two pi bonds with sp hybridization.
Each type of hybridization creates a specific molecular geometry. The sp hybrid orbital has a linear shape with a 180° bond angle, sp² creates a trigonal shape with 120° bond angles, and sp³ forms a tetrahedral structure with 109.5° bond angles.
Remember: The type of hybridization determines a molecule's shape, which directly affects its chemical properties and how it interacts with other molecules!
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Hybridization and Molecular Structure
Hybridization is the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals to create new hybrid orbitals. You can determine hybridization by counting the total valence electrons (TVE). For atoms with 8 or fewer valence electrons: 2 connections means sp, 3 connections means sp², and 4 connections means sp³.
Another simple method to determine hybridization is to count both the number of atoms connected to the central atom and the lone pairs attached to it, then add them together. This sum tells you the type of hybridization present.
Steric effects are non-bonding interactions that influence the shape and reactivity of molecules. These effects depend on the number of bonds attached to an atom and help determine molecular geometry. For example, a carbon with 4 steric values has sp³ hybridization, while a carbon with 2 steric values has sp² hybridization.
Quick tip: When analyzing molecular structure, think of hybridization as the "blueprint" that determines how atoms will arrange themselves in 3D space!
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Formal Charge, Bond Order, and Alkanes
Formal charge helps track electrons in molecules and equals the number of valence electrons minus non-bonded electrons and bonds. For example, in BH₄, boron has a formal charge of -1. Bond order indicates bond stability—higher bond orders mean stronger bonds with greater electron attraction.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms. They're also called paraffins and serve as the main source of natural gas. These compounds follow specific naming conventions based on the IUPAC system.
When naming alkanes, we identify the longest continuous carbon chain and number it to give the lowest possible numbers to substituents. For example, 4-heptane has a main seven-carbon chain (heptane) with a substituted group at the fourth position.
Study strategy: When naming complex organic molecules, always identify the longest carbon chain first, then work on naming and positioning the substituents!
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Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Cyclic hydrocarbons form ring structures with the formula CₙH₂ₙ. When naming cycloalkanes, the prefix "cyclo" indicates the ring structure, followed by the alkane name based on the number of carbons in the ring. Substituents on the ring are given position numbers to identify their locations.
For example, methylcyclopentane has a cyclopentane ring (5 carbons) with a methyl group attached. When there are multiple substituents, numbers indicate their positions around the ring, like in 1-bromo-3-ethyl-5-methylcyclohexane.
Bicyclic alkanes contain two rings that share at least one carbon atom. They're named using the prefix "bicyclo" followed by numbers in brackets that indicate the number of carbons in each bridge, arranged in decreasing length. For instance, bicyclooctane has bridges containing 4, 2, and 0 carbon atoms.
Visual tip: Think of cycloalkanes like bicycle wheels and bicyclic alkanes like two wheels connected together at one or more points!
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Complex Cyclic Structures and Alkane Properties
Spirocyclic alkanes have two rings joined at a single carbon atom. When naming these compounds, use "spiro" followed by the ring sizes in square brackets, like 1,6-dimethyl spirodecane, which has 4-carbon and 5-carbon rings connected by a shared carbon.
The physical properties of alkanes depend on their structure. As carbon chain length increases in continuous chain alkanes and cycloalkanes, their boiling and melting points rise. However, branching on a carbon chain actually lowers the boiling point compared to straight-chain isomers.
Cycloalkanes generally have higher boiling points than their non-cyclic counterparts. When it comes to solubility, alkanes follow the principle of "like dissolves like." They're non-polar and hydrophobic, meaning they dissolve well in other non-polar solvents but poorly in water.
Application note: Understanding alkane properties helps explain why oil doesn't mix with water and why gasoline (a mixture of various alkanes) works as a fuel!
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Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user