Chemistry Fundamentals

Chemistry is the scientific study of matter, its properties, composition, and how substances interact with energy. It's not just about lab experiments—chemistry explains everything around us, from the food we eat to the air we breathe!

Chemistry benefits twelve major fields, including agriculture (where fertilizers transform waste into plant nutrients) and medicine (where drugs interact with our body chemistry). It's also vital in developing cleaning agents, electrical devices, transportation, food preservation, and even explaining the science of love through hormones like oxytocin and dopamine!

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It has two main properties: physical properties (observed without changing the substance's identity) and chemical properties (related to how substances transform into different substances). Physical properties can be intensive (like smell or texture) or extensive (like mass or volume).

Fun Fact: The "love hormone" oxytocin is released by your hypothalamus and creates feelings of attachment and bonding. Chemistry really does explain why we fall in love!

Matter exists in three states: solid (rigid with fixed shape), liquid (defined volume but takes container shape), and gas (no fixed volume or shape). Mixtures can be homogeneous (one phase, like juice) or heterogeneous (two or more phases, like pizza).

States of Matter and Measurement

The three states of matter each have distinct properties. Solids maintain their shape and volume (like ice or diamonds), liquids keep their volume but conform to container shapes (like water or gasoline), and gases have neither fixed shape nor volume (like air or helium).

Matter can be classified as either pure substances or mixtures. Pure substances cannot be separated through physical means and include elements (simplest form, like hydrogen) and compounds (two or more elements chemically joined, like water). Mixtures can be separated physically and come in two types: homogeneous (one phase) and heterogeneous (multiple phases).

When working with chemistry, accurate measurement is crucial to prevent errors and miscalculations. This becomes obvious when we look at student measurements of a cylinder's mass (47.32g), where different students got slightly different readings in multiple trials.

Important: Precision means getting consistent results when repeating measurements, while accuracy means getting results close to the true value. Both are essential for reliable scientific work!

Mixtures can be homogeneous (single phase like juice) or heterogeneous (multiple phases like salad). Pure substances can't be physically separated and include elements (simplest form of matter) and compounds (multiple elements chemically joined).

Significant Figures in Chemistry

In chemistry, significant figures (sig figs) tell us how precise a measurement is. There are five key rules for identifying them:

Nonzero digits are always significant (124 mL has three sig figs). Captive zeros between nonzero digits count too (8.09g has three sig figs). Leading zeros that just place the decimal point don't count (0.04L has one sig fig). Trailing zeros after the decimal point are significant (0.500g has three sig figs). Final zeros without a decimal point may or may not count (use scientific notation to clarify).

When doing calculations, follow specific rules. For addition and subtraction, round your answer to match the measurement with the least decimal places. For example, 120.0g + 34.506g + 13.15g = 167.7g (rounded to one decimal place).

For multiplication and division, round to match the measurement with the fewest significant figures. When finding density (mass÷volume), if mass has 4 sig figs and volume has 3, your answer should have only 3 sig figs.

Remember: The calculation rule is simple: "Addition and subtraction: match decimal places. Multiplication and division: match significant figures."

You'll need these formulas often: density = mass/volume, volume = mass/density, mass = density × volume, and area = length × width × height. Mastering significant figures will make your lab calculations much more accurate!

Atomic Structure and Models

Atoms are the building blocks of matter, derived from the Greek word "atomos" meaning "indivisible." Though extremely small (about 100 picometers), atoms contain three key subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford (1911-1919) and carry a positive charge within the nucleus. In his famous Gold Foil Experiment, Rutherford shot alpha particles at gold foil and discovered most passed through, but some deflected, suggesting atoms have a dense, positive center.

Electrons were discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897 using a cathode ray tube. These tiny, negatively charged particles are the lightest stable subatomic particles. Thomson's "plum-pudding model" suggested electrons were embedded in a positive cloud, like raisins in bread.

Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. These particles have no electric charge and are found in the nuclei of most atoms (except hydrogen). Chadwick discovered them by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles and observing the neutral rays produced.

Quick Tip: Remember the charge locations with this trick: protons are positive and in the nucleus, electrons are negative and orbit around the nucleus, and neutrons are neutral and also in the nucleus.

These discoveries gradually improved our understanding of atomic structure, moving from Thomson's "plum pudding" model to Rutherford's nuclear model, which recognized that atoms have a dense positive center surrounded by orbiting electrons.

Atomic Theory and Isotopes

John Dalton, a British scientist, pioneered modern atomic theory with four key principles: all matter consists of atoms; atoms of the same element are identical; atoms combine in whole number ratios to form compounds; and chemical reactions merely rearrange atoms (they aren't created or destroyed).

These principles align with three fundamental laws of matter: the Law of Conservation of Mass (mass remains constant during chemical reactions), the Law of Multiple Proportion (elements combine in fixed ratios by mass), and the Law of Definite Composition (compounds always contain consistent proportions of elements).

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons and electrons. Some isotopes are stable and useful for determining the age and origin of geological materials. Others are radioactive, with unstable nuclei that emit energy until becoming stable.

Radioactive isotopes form in four ways: long-lived isotopes from the solar system's creation, cosmogenic isotopes from cosmic rays, anthropogenic isotopes from human nuclear activities, and radiogenic isotopes from radioactive decay.

Remember: The atomic number equals the number of protons (and electrons), while the mass number equals protons plus neutrons. This helps you calculate neutrons by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number.

When calculating an element's atomic mass, you multiply each isotope's mass by its natural abundance percentage, then add these values. For example, carbon's atomic mass combines the contributions of carbon-12 (98.90%) and carbon-13 (1.10%).

Molecules, Ions, and Chemical Bonds

Molecules are formed when two or more atoms join through covalent bonds by sharing electrons. They can be classified as molecular elements (same element joined together, like H₂) or molecular compounds (different atoms joined together, like H₂O).

Chemical bonds form in two primary ways. In covalent bonds, atoms share electrons to achieve stability by filling their electron levels. Oxygen gas (O₂) is a perfect example where two oxygen atoms share electrons. In ionic bonds, one atom gains an electron while another loses one, creating oppositely charged ions that attract each other, like in sodium chloride (NaCl).

Ions are atoms or molecules with an electric charge due to electron loss or gain. Cations have a positive charge from losing electrons (like Na⁺), while anions have a negative charge from gaining electrons (like Cl⁻).

Quick Tip: To remember the difference between cations and anions, think: "Cations are Positive" (both start with consonants), while "Anions are Negative" (both start with vowels).

The periodic table helps you determine the likely charge of an element. Group 1 elements (like sodium) typically form 1+ ions, Group 2 elements (like calcium) form 2+ ions, and transition metals can form multiple ion types (which is why we specify their charge in names like iron(II) or iron(III)).

Understanding Ions and Naming Conventions

Ions come in two types: monatomic (single atom) and polyatomic (multiple atoms). To name monatomic ions, simply use the root name of the element and add the "-ide" suffix (S²⁻ becomes sulfide). Common monatomic cations include hydrogen (H⁺), sodium (Na⁺), and potassium (K⁺), while common anions include chloride (Cl⁻), bromide (Br⁻), and oxide (O²⁻).

Polyatomic ions have specific naming patterns you need to memorize. The suffix "-ate" indicates one more oxygen than "-ite" (sulfate has one more oxygen than sulfite). Adding the prefix "per-" means one more oxygen than "-ate" (perchlorate has one more oxygen than chlorate). The prefix "hypo-" indicates one less oxygen than "-ite" (hypochlorite has one less oxygen than chlorite).

This pattern is consistent across similar ions. For chlorine-oxygen ions, you get chloride (Cl⁻), hypochlorite (ClO⁻), chlorite (ClO₂⁻), chlorate (ClO₃⁻), and perchlorate (ClO₄⁻). The same pattern works for bromine and iodine compounds.

Learning Tip: Remember the oxygen progression with this phrase: "I ate more than ite, per-ate more than ate, and hypo-ite ate less than ite."

Common polyatomic ions include ammonium (NH₄⁺), nitrate (NO₃⁻), hydroxide (OH⁻), carbonate (CO₃²⁻), and phosphate (PO₄³⁻). Oxyanions are polyatomic ions containing one or more oxygen atoms plus a nonmetal, usually with negative charges of -1, -2, or -3.

Naming Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are formed between metals and nonmetals and always have neutral overall charges. When naming them, we follow specific rules depending on whether they contain transition metals.

For compounds without transition metals, simply name the cation first, followed by the anion with an "-ide" ending. For example, NaCl is "sodium chloride" because sodium (Na) is the cation and chlorine (Cl) becomes "chloride" as the anion. Other examples include magnesium chloride (MgCl₂), barium oxide (BaO), and sodium oxide (Na₂O).

For compounds with transition metals, we must specify the charge of the metal using Roman numerals. This is necessary because transition metals can form multiple ions with different charges. In FeCl₃, iron (Fe) has a 3+ charge (deduced from balancing with three Cl⁻ ions), so we name it "iron(III) chloride." Similarly, FeCl₂ is "iron(II) chloride," and Cu₂O is "copper(I) oxide."

Remember: The overall charge in an ionic compound must equal zero. This is the key to figuring out the charge on transition metals and writing correct formulas!

When writing chemical formulas for ionic compounds, you need to balance the positive and negative charges. For lithium oxide, Li has a 1+ charge and O has a 2- charge, so you need two Li⁺ ions to balance one O²⁻ ion, giving the formula Li₂O. The "criss-cross method" makes this easy—just cross the charges over to become subscripts.

Ionic and Molecular Compounds

Ionic compounds consist of metals and nonmetals with charged ions held together by electrostatic forces. To name these compounds, first write the cation name, then the anion name with the "-ide" suffix (for simple anions). For example, NaCl is "sodium chloride" and CaCO₃ is "calcium carbonate."

When writing formulas for ionic compounds, use the criss-cross method. For calcium chloride (Ca²⁺ and Cl⁻), cross the charges to get CaCl₂. For transition metals with multiple possible charges, include Roman numerals in the name to specify which ion is present, like iron(II) chloride (FeCl₂) versus iron(III) chloride (FeCl₃).

Molecular compounds, unlike ionic compounds, share electrons through covalent bonds. They're typically formed between nonmetals. When naming these compounds, use Greek prefixes to indicate the number of atoms: mono- (1), di- (2), tri- (3), tetra- (4), etc. For example, S₂Cl₂ is "disulfur dichloride," CO is "carbon monoxide," and CCl₄ is "carbon tetrachloride."

Helpful Tip: For ionic compounds, think "metal + nonmetal = ionic." For molecular compounds, think "nonmetal + nonmetal = molecular." This simple rule will help you identify compound types quickly!

To write molecular compound formulas, simply look at the prefixes in the name. "Dinitrogen trioxide" tells you there are two nitrogen atoms and three oxygen atoms, giving the formula N₂O₃. Similarly, "phosphorus pentafluoride" gives PF₅, with one phosphorus and five fluorine atoms.

Chemical Formulas and Notation

Chemical formulas provide a shorthand way to represent compounds and their composition. The three basic types of chemical formulas each serve different purposes in chemistry.

A molecular (true) formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound. For example, C₂H₄ represents ethene, showing it contains exactly 2 carbon and 4 hydrogen atoms. These formulas tell you the actual composition of the molecule as it exists.

An empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. It's derived by reducing the molecular formula to its lowest terms. For ethene (C₂H₄), dividing each subscript by 2 gives the empirical formula CH₂. This represents the relative proportions of atoms rather than the actual number.

A structural formula provides more detailed information by showing how atoms are arranged in three-dimensional space. It's a graphic representation that reveals which atoms are bonded to each other. For ethene, the structural formula shows the double bond between carbon atoms and how hydrogen atoms attach.

Chemistry Insight: The empirical formula is like a recipe ratio $sugar:flour = 1:2$, while the molecular formula gives the actual amounts (2 cups sugar, 4 cups flour). Both describe the same recipe in different ways!

When working with transition metals that can form multiple ions (like iron, which can be Fe²⁺ or Fe³⁺), we determine the charge by examining the anions in the formula. In FeCl₃, the three Cl⁻ ions $total -3 charge$ tell us iron must have a +3 charge to create a neutral compound.