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sunblooms
12/2/2025
Chemistry
unit 2 chemistry notes
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Dec 2, 2025
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Comprehensive Unit 2 Chemistry Notes on Atomic Structure
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@sunbloomstudies
1 / 5
Models of the Atom
The atom's structure has been a mystery scientists have worked to solve for centuries. Each model built upon previous discoveries, creating a more accurate picture of what atoms truly look like.
Dalton's Solid Sphere Model (1803) portrayed atoms as simple, indivisible spheres combining in fixed ratios. This basic model drew inspiration from ancient philosophers like Democritus. J.J. Thomson revolutionized this concept in 1904 with his Plum Pudding Model, suggesting atoms had a positive outer layer with negative particles inside, based on his Cathode Ray Tube experiments.
Rutherford's Nuclear Model (1911) made a groundbreaking discovery through his Gold Foil Experiment. He found that atoms were mostly empty space with a dense, positively charged nucleus at the center. Bohr expanded on this in 1913 with his Bohr Model, proposing electrons orbit in fixed energy levels around the nucleus, explaining atomic emission spectra.
Remember This! Modern atomic theory uses the Quantum Model (1926) developed by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, which describes electrons moving in "probability clouds" called orbitals rather than fixed paths.
Counting Subatomic Particles
Atoms are identified by their unique combination of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each element has a specific atomic number (number of protons) that gives it its identity.
The atomic number tells you the number of protons in an atom, while the mass number represents the total number of protons and neutrons. For neutral atoms, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. When an atom gains or loses electrons, it becomes an ion with a positive or negative charge.
Different isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. For example, Potassium-39 and Potassium-41 both have 19 protons (making them potassium), but K-39 has 20 neutrons while K-41 has 22 neutrons.
Quick Tip: When working with ions, remember that positive ions have lost electrons (fewer electrons than protons), while negative ions have gained electrons (more electrons than protons).
Bohr's Atomic Model and Energy Levels
The Bohr model helps us understand how electrons are arranged in energy levels around the nucleus. Valence electrons (those in the outermost shell) are especially important as they determine how atoms bond with one another.
When energy is added to an atom, electrons can jump to higher energy levels. As these electrons return to their original positions, they release energy in the form of light with specific wavelengths. This creates an atomic emission spectrum - essentially a light "fingerprint" unique to each element. Just like your fingerprints identify you, these spectra identify specific elements.
The flame test demonstrates this principle beautifully. When a metal compound is placed in a flame, it absorbs energy, exciting its electrons. As these electrons return to lower energy states, they emit colored light characteristic of that element - copper glows blue-green, sodium produces a bright yellow, and lithium creates a distinctive red.
Cool Connection: The colored lights in fireworks come from different metal compounds that produce specific colors when heated - the same principle as the flame test!
Nuclear Reactions
Atoms can undergo two main types of nuclear reactions: fusion and fission. Both release tremendous energy but through opposite processes.
In fusion, smaller nuclei "come together" to form a larger nucleus. This powerful process powers our sun and stars, where hydrogen atoms combine to form helium, releasing enormous energy. Scientists are working to harness fusion for clean energy production on Earth. The equation for a fusion reaction might look like: ²H + ³H → ⁴He + ¹n + energy.
Fission happens when larger nuclei "break apart" into smaller ones. This process releases energy and is used in nuclear power plants. A typical fission reaction occurs when uranium-235 absorbs a neutron and splits into smaller elements plus more neutrons: ²³⁵U + ¹n → ¹⁵²Nd + X + 3¹n. Both reactions must conserve mass and the number of protons.
Why It Matters: Understanding nuclear reactions helps explain everything from how stars produce energy to how nuclear medicine works. These reactions also have applications in carbon dating, medical imaging, and power generation.
Radioactive Decay and Half-Life
Radioactive elements have unstable nuclei that spontaneously decay over time to become more stable. The rate of this decay is measured by half-life - the time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay.
Calculating how much of a radioactive sample remains after a certain time becomes straightforward once you know the half-life. For example, if you start with 100g of a material with a 2.7-day half-life, after 8.1 days , you'd have 12.5g remaining. This is because 100g → 50g → 25g → 12.5g after three half-lives.
There are different types of radioactive decay. In beta decay, a neutron converts to a proton, emitting an electron (β particle). For example: ⁴²₁₉K → ⁰₋₁e + ⁴²₂₀Ca. In alpha decay, a nucleus releases an alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons): ²³⁹₉₄Pu → ⁴₂α + ²³⁵₉₂U.
Real-World Application: Carbon dating works because living things contain a consistent ratio of radioactive carbon-14 to stable carbon-12. After death, the carbon-14 decays with a half-life of 5,730 years, allowing scientists to determine how long ago something died by measuring the remaining carbon-14.
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I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
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Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
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Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
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THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
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This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Comprehensive Unit 2 Chemistry Notes on Atomic Structure
sunblooms
@sunbloomstudies
Inside atoms lies a fascinating world of subatomic particles and atomic models that have evolved dramatically over time. Understanding atomic structure helps explain how matter behaves and interacts in the universe around us. This unit explores atomic models, subatomic particles,... Show more
Models of the Atom
The atom's structure has been a mystery scientists have worked to solve for centuries. Each model built upon previous discoveries, creating a more accurate picture of what atoms truly look like.
Dalton's Solid Sphere Model (1803) portrayed atoms as simple, indivisible spheres combining in fixed ratios. This basic model drew inspiration from ancient philosophers like Democritus. J.J. Thomson revolutionized this concept in 1904 with his Plum Pudding Model, suggesting atoms had a positive outer layer with negative particles inside, based on his Cathode Ray Tube experiments.
Rutherford's Nuclear Model (1911) made a groundbreaking discovery through his Gold Foil Experiment. He found that atoms were mostly empty space with a dense, positively charged nucleus at the center. Bohr expanded on this in 1913 with his Bohr Model, proposing electrons orbit in fixed energy levels around the nucleus, explaining atomic emission spectra.
Remember This! Modern atomic theory uses the Quantum Model (1926) developed by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, which describes electrons moving in "probability clouds" called orbitals rather than fixed paths.
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Counting Subatomic Particles
Atoms are identified by their unique combination of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each element has a specific atomic number (number of protons) that gives it its identity.
The atomic number tells you the number of protons in an atom, while the mass number represents the total number of protons and neutrons. For neutral atoms, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. When an atom gains or loses electrons, it becomes an ion with a positive or negative charge.
Different isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. For example, Potassium-39 and Potassium-41 both have 19 protons (making them potassium), but K-39 has 20 neutrons while K-41 has 22 neutrons.
Quick Tip: When working with ions, remember that positive ions have lost electrons (fewer electrons than protons), while negative ions have gained electrons (more electrons than protons).
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Bohr's Atomic Model and Energy Levels
The Bohr model helps us understand how electrons are arranged in energy levels around the nucleus. Valence electrons (those in the outermost shell) are especially important as they determine how atoms bond with one another.
When energy is added to an atom, electrons can jump to higher energy levels. As these electrons return to their original positions, they release energy in the form of light with specific wavelengths. This creates an atomic emission spectrum - essentially a light "fingerprint" unique to each element. Just like your fingerprints identify you, these spectra identify specific elements.
The flame test demonstrates this principle beautifully. When a metal compound is placed in a flame, it absorbs energy, exciting its electrons. As these electrons return to lower energy states, they emit colored light characteristic of that element - copper glows blue-green, sodium produces a bright yellow, and lithium creates a distinctive red.
Cool Connection: The colored lights in fireworks come from different metal compounds that produce specific colors when heated - the same principle as the flame test!
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Nuclear Reactions
Atoms can undergo two main types of nuclear reactions: fusion and fission. Both release tremendous energy but through opposite processes.
In fusion, smaller nuclei "come together" to form a larger nucleus. This powerful process powers our sun and stars, where hydrogen atoms combine to form helium, releasing enormous energy. Scientists are working to harness fusion for clean energy production on Earth. The equation for a fusion reaction might look like: ²H + ³H → ⁴He + ¹n + energy.
Fission happens when larger nuclei "break apart" into smaller ones. This process releases energy and is used in nuclear power plants. A typical fission reaction occurs when uranium-235 absorbs a neutron and splits into smaller elements plus more neutrons: ²³⁵U + ¹n → ¹⁵²Nd + X + 3¹n. Both reactions must conserve mass and the number of protons.
Why It Matters: Understanding nuclear reactions helps explain everything from how stars produce energy to how nuclear medicine works. These reactions also have applications in carbon dating, medical imaging, and power generation.
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Radioactive Decay and Half-Life
Radioactive elements have unstable nuclei that spontaneously decay over time to become more stable. The rate of this decay is measured by half-life - the time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay.
Calculating how much of a radioactive sample remains after a certain time becomes straightforward once you know the half-life. For example, if you start with 100g of a material with a 2.7-day half-life, after 8.1 days , you'd have 12.5g remaining. This is because 100g → 50g → 25g → 12.5g after three half-lives.
There are different types of radioactive decay. In beta decay, a neutron converts to a proton, emitting an electron (β particle). For example: ⁴²₁₉K → ⁰₋₁e + ⁴²₂₀Ca. In alpha decay, a nucleus releases an alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons): ²³⁹₉₄Pu → ⁴₂α + ²³⁵₉₂U.
Real-World Application: Carbon dating works because living things contain a consistent ratio of radioactive carbon-14 to stable carbon-12. After death, the carbon-14 decays with a half-life of 5,730 years, allowing scientists to determine how long ago something died by measuring the remaining carbon-14.
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user