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- initial value) / initial value x 100 ● Predation: organisms will use another for energy (parasites, herbivores) O Herbivores are predators--use the tree for energy O True predators kill and eat prey for energy O Parasites use a host for energy, usually without killing the host (mosquito) ● ● O Parasitoid: lay eggs inside a host and the eggs will hatch and eat the host for energy Symbiosis: any close or long term interaction between organisms of different species O Competition: organisms fight over a resource, limiting population size Temporal partitioning: using resources at different times (wolves and coyotes hunting time) Spatial partitioning: using different areas of a habitat (length roots) Morphological partitioning: using resources based on different evolved body features Mutualism: relationships benefit both organisms ■ Ex. lichen: fungi live with algae--algae gives sugar and fungi gives nutrients Commensalism: relationships benefits one but doesn't impact the other (bird in tree) O Biome: area that shares combination of avg temp and precipitation (ex. Rainforest, taiga, desert, tundra) O Organisms are uniquely adapted to live in the biome (ex. Camels and cacti in the desert) O Thunder and boreal will be at higher latitudes, temperate will be mid, tropical will be closer to equator Nutrient availability: plants need soil nutrients to grow, so availability determines where plants can survive O Tropical rainforest: nutrient poor soil because HIGH COMPETITION O Resource partitioning: different species can use the resource in different ways that reduce competition Boreal forest: nutrient poor because low temp, decomposition rate of organic matter Temperate forest: dead organism matter is high, and warm temperature is good for decomposition Shifting biomes as climate changes: warming climate can shift biomes north as permafrost soil melts and lower latitudes become too warm--also can decline the range available for biomes Aquatic biomes O O Salinity: how much salt there is in water, determining which species can survive; Depth: how much sunlight can penetrate and reach plants for photosynthesis; Flow: which plants and organisms can survive, how much 02 will be in water; Temperature: warmer water has less dissolved O2, less organisms ● ● ● ● O O O O O O Freshwater: rivers have high O2 and sediments due to flow mixing water while lakes are standing bodies of H2O O Wetlands: area with soil saturated in water for a part of the year, shallow enough for emergent plants--plants have to be adapted to living with roots in water ● Stores water during storms, recharges groundwater by absorbing rainfall, roots can filter pollutants from water draining, high plant growth due to water Estuaries: areas that rivers empty into the ocean--mix of fresh and saltwater, high productivity from nutrients in sediments. Coral reef: warm water beyond shoreline, most diverse ocean biome ■ Mutualistic relationship with coral and algae--coral take CO2 and make calcium carbonate and give CO2 to algae while algae give sugar to coral through photosynthesis Intertidal zones: band of coastline between tides--organisms have to survive crashing waves and sunlight, tough outer skin and shell Carbon Cycle: Co2, glucose, CH4 O O O ■ Open ocean: low productivity per unit be algae and phytoplankton can survive mostly--they absorb lots of CO2 and produce 02 ■ Algae and phytoplankton take CO2 out of ocean through photosynthesis / coral reef take CO2 to make calcium carbonate shells Sedimentation: when marine organisms die, bodies sink to the floor and it is broken down into sediments and buried--water compresses the carbon and turns into sedimentary stone FF are formed from fossilized remains of organisms over long periods, then when they are dug and combusted, CO2 is released--combustion happens faster than burial which leads to increased CO2 Nitrogen Cycle: O Nitrogen fixation: N2 is converted into NH3 (ammonia) or NO3 (nitrate) ■ Bacterial fixation: bacteria in soil or bacteria in root nodules of legumes convert N2 to NH3 Synthetic fixation: humans combust FF to convert gas to NO3 which is added to fertilizers Assimilation: plants and animals take in N and incorporate it into their body--plants take in from soil while animals will eat plants or other animals O Ammonification: soil bacteria and decomposers convert dead biomass into NH3 and bring it back to the soil O Nitrification: conversion of NH4 to NO2, then NO3 by soil bacteria Carbon sinks store more carbon than they release: ocean, plants Carbon sources are processes that add to the atmosphere: deforestation, animals, fossil fuels 1. Plants, algae, and phytoplankton remove CO2 from atmosphere, converting it to glucose and store it in sugar // balanced by respiration, in which O2 is used to break down glucose and release CO2 and heat energy Ocean/Atmosphere: CO2 moves from atmosphere and ocean from dissolving, happening in equal directions... OCEAN ACIDIFICATION O Denitrification: conversion of NO3 to N2O which will return to the atmosphere O HUMAN IMPACT: N2O is greenhouse gas, made by denitrification of nitrate in agricultural soils Ammonia volatilization: excess fertilizer can lead to NH3 gas entering the atmosphere, which leads to acid precipitation and means less nitrogen will stay in soil for crops Leaching and eutrophication: fertilizer leads to leaching of nitrates... enters water and nitrogen will fuel algae growth so that sunlight will not come through, so 02 levels decrease Phosphorus Cycle: rocks and sediments are major reservoirs, and cycle moves slowly because minerals must be weathered out of rocks and carried into soil and there is no gas phase--often a limiting nutrient in ecosystems NEEDED FOR DNA, bone, tooth enamel O Wind and rain weathers rocks, which is dissolved into water and rain will carry it to soils and water O Synthetic phosphorus is made by mining minerals and adding to products like fertilizers and cleaners--fertilizers can runoff to natural bodies of water O Assimilated through plant roots and in tissues, then follows animal waste and dead biomass by returning to the soil O Phosphate forms solid bits of phosphate that falls to the bottom of the water as sediment O Tectonic plate collision through geological uplift can force rock layers up and cycle will start over again with weathering Water Cycle: O Transpiration: plants draw water from roots to leaves, using stomata and allowing water to evaporate into atmosphere ■ Evapotranspiration: H2o entering atmosphere from transpiration and evaporation O Precipitation will flow until it reaches runoff (carries pollutants to water sources) or permeable aquifer (infiltration)--become freshwater reservoirs Primary Productivity: rate that solar energy is converted to organic compounds through photosynthesis over time (kcal/m^2/yr)--rate of plant growth or rate of photosynthesis of producers in an area over time ● O O O O Trophic Levels, 10% Rule O O O O O Producers: convert sun to chemical energy Primary consumers eat plants Secondary consumers eat primary or herbivores I Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers or carnivores/omnivores Food Webs: when organisms prey on another, the matter is passed to the predator (arrows in webs indicate where energy is going) O High PP: more food and shelter for animals, so ecosystems tend to be more biodiverse Respiration loss: plants use energy through photosynthesis by doing respiration GPP is the TOTAL amount of energy that is captured and converted to energy, NPP is energy left over for consumers after plants use for respiration ■ NPP=GPP-RL Ecological efficiency: only .4% of total incoming energy is used for productivity I The more productive a biome, the wider the diversity of animal life--water availability, higher temp, nutrient availability lead to high NPP MOST productive: Swamps, rainforest, coral reef LEAST productive: desert, open ocean O O Matter is conserved: matter or energy is never created or destroyed--ex. Sun light energy converted to glucose chemical energy Every time energy is transferred, some is lost as heat UNIT 2: Biodiversity NOTES ● Higher biodiversity = higher population/ecosystem health ■ Amount of useable energy decreases as you move up the food chain--only 10% is transferred so only 10% of biomass can be supported Trophic levels O Ecosystem diversity: # of habitats available in a given area O O ■ ■ ■ Food webs have at least 2 interconnected food chains and show that organisms can be different trophic levels Trophic cascade: removal or addition of a top predator has a ripple effect on lower levels ■ Decline in wolf increases deer, declines trees Richness (r): total number of different species in an ecosystem--high r is sign of ecosystem health Evenness: measure of how all organisms are balanced between species--indicates if there are dominant species or if sizes are balanced Species diversity: # of different species in an ecosystem and balance or evenness of the population sizes of species Genetic diversity: how different the genes of individuals in a population are Random mutations in copying of DNA and recombination of chromosomes in cells of parents make new gene combinations--the more genetic diversity, the better the population can respond to environmental stressors be there is higher chance that individuals will have traits to survive Bottleneck event: a disturbance that will drastically reduce population size and kill organisms regardless of genomes--the remaining population doesn't represent genetic diversity of the original population, and events can reduce genetic diversity ■ ■ Inbreeding leads to higher chance of offspring having harmful genetic mutations because they get similar genotypes from parents (which smaller populations are more susceptible to) Ecosystem resilience: ability to return an ecosystem to its original condition after a major disturbance (correlates with species diversity--high diversity means plants can repopulate the disturbed area and anchor soil) ● Ecosystem services: goods from natural resources or functions that ecosystems have that have financial value to humans O Provisioning: goods from ecosystems or made from resources ■ Ex. fishing, hunting, lumber, paper, rubber ■ Harmed by overharvesting, water pollution, or clearing land for urbanization Regulating: natural ecosystems can regulate natural conditions Ex. trees sequester CO2 in photosynthesis ■ ■ Harmed by deforestation Supporting: ecosystems support processes that we do, making them less costly and easier Wetlands filter pollutants, making groundwater cleaner so we don't have to pay as much to clean water ■ Harmed by pollinator habitat loss or filling in wetlands for development O Cultural: money which comes from recreation or scientific knowledge Ex. landscapes draw tourists who will spend money Harmed by deforestation, pollution, urbanization ■ ■ ● ● ● O O O Island Biogeography: consider islands in water or habitat islands surrounded by human land ■ Larger islands support more total species bc it has more ecosystem diversity and more resources + niches to support organisms Ecological tolerance: the range of conditions that an organism can endure before death or injury, like temperature, salinity, pH, or sunlight--both for the species and individual organisms O Optimal range: where organisms thrive and grow O O More continual migration, meaning more diversity and larger population size Larger populations make less likely to become regionally extinct Islands give more pressure for species to adapt to narrower niches, ex. Galapagos finches Adaptive radiation: species evolve into new species to use different resources and reduce competition O Zone of intolerance: range where the organism will die Natural disruptions to ecosystems: natural events disrupt the structure or function of ecosystems, which can be greater than human disruptions O O Islands closer to the mainland support more species be easier to colonize organisms to get to island from mainland, which leads to more genetic diversity ● Zone of physiological stress: range where organisms survive but experience stress (area between optimum and tolerance range) O O O Ecological succession O Adaptations: populations have variability genes from random mutations while DNA is copied which creates new traits, leading to adaptations which are traits that increase an organism's ability to survive O Natural selection: organisms better adapted to the environment survive and reproduce better and individuals with adaptations will reproduce and pass the trait down until the population has the adaptation Selective pressure or force: the condition that kills individuals without adaptation Environment of the organism determines what traits are adaptations As the environment changes faster, the species will be less likely to adapt to those changes The higher the genetic diversity, the better they will be able to adapt The longer the lifespan of the organism, the slower the rate of evolution Can be periodic, episodic (sense, but irregular), random Earth's climate has changed from changes in earth's orbit and other natural reasons along with sea level variance as glacial ice melts Major disturbances lead to widespread habitat change or loss--sea level rising can change the dynamics of populations Migration from natural disruptions O Primary succession: begins with bare rock, with moss and lichen spores being carried by the wind and growing and breaking down on rock to form soil pioneer/early succession species: seeds spread by wind or animals, grow fast, tolerant of shallow soil and full light--grow where there is bare rock or bare soil O UNIT 3: Population NOTES ■ Mid successional species come after pioneer has helped develop deeper soil with more nutrients--fast growing, larger plants with deeper roots, sun tolerant Secondary succession: starts from established soil where there has been a disturbance that cleared out most of the plant life in the area Late successional or climax community species: after soil is enriched with nutrients--large, slow growing and are tolerant of shade and require deep soil Can be nutrient rich soil from fires because of nutrient rich ash ● Specialist vs. generalist species O Generalist: Larger range of tolerance, broader niche makes them less prone to extinction--broad food requirements + high adaptability, adaptable to many environments, variety of resources, advantageous for changing conditions O Specialist: smaller range of tolerance, narrower niche makes them more prone to extinction--specific food requirements + less adaptability, easily affected by changes in conditions, advantageous for constant conditions, specific set of resources R-adapted species vs K-adapted species O R-selected species: rapid growth, early maturity, many offspring, short life, little to no parental protection, adaptation to varied environment, pioneers/colonizers, generalists, prey, low on food web ■ Density independent population regulation, high biotic potential (rapid recovery), variable population dynamics, Type II + III K-selected species: slow growth, late maturity, few offspring, long life, parental care, adaptation to stable environment, established conditions, niche specialists, predators, high on food web ● ● ● ● ● Survivorship Curves: Type I, II, III O O Type III: mostly r--high mortality in early life from little/no parental care, steady decline in mid life Carrying Capacity (k): the max number of individuals in a population an ecosystem can support, based on limiting resources O O O When population overshoots, then quick die off happens--from food availability, predator-prey relationships Predator-prey relationships: predators lag behind the general trend of the prey O Population characteristics O O O O ■ O O Density dependent population regulation, low biotic potential (hard to recover after disturbance), stable/near carrying capacity population dynamics, Type II + III O Biotic potential: max potential growth rate w/o limiting factors (exponential) O Logistic growth: initial rapid growth, then limiting factors limit to k Age structure diagrams: diagrams w/ shape evidencing growth of the population 0-14-prereproductive, 15-44=reproductive age, 45+-post reproductive Larger 0-14-current + future growth equal slight growth/stable O Type I: mostly k--high survivorship in early + mid life, rapid decrease in survivorship w/ old age Type II: between r and k--steady survivorship O ■ Larger 15-44-decline Total fertility rate: avg number of children a woman will have in her lifetime O development/affluence: more developed nations have a lower TFR than less developed nations ■ More education, economical opportunity, family planning, less children needed for income from agriculture Government policy: coercive or non coercive policy O Size: larger safer from decline ● Human Population Dynamics O Density: higher density-more competition, disease outbreak, depleting food source Distribution: how individuals are spaced out in comparison w each other (random those with random seeds, uniform territorial animals, clumped herd groups) Density-independent factors: factors influencing pop growth independent of size O Natural disasters Density dependent factors: factors that influence pop growth based on size Food, competition for habitat, water, light, disease ■ forced/voluntary sterilization, child policy, tax incentives to have less children, microcredits/loans to women to start businesses Replacement level fertility: TFR needed to offset deaths in population, and to keep size stable Infant mortality rate (IMR): # of deaths of children under 1 per 1000 people every year Influential factors: clean water, healthcare, reliable food supply Humans can alter earth's k with innovations ■ Increased population growth: higher TFR, high infant mortality rate can drive TFR, high immigration, increased clean water/healthcare access Decreased population growth: high death rate, high infant mortality, increased development, education Demographic transition: the 5 steps O Industrialization: process of economic/social transition from agrarian to industrial Standard of living O Step 1 - Pre industrialized: not yet made transition, low GDP, high death rate, high TFR for replacement children and agricultural labor ■ High IMR + DR from lack of clean water, food, healthcare; high TFR w little education/family planning; child agricultural labor; little/no growth from CBR + CDR balance ■ GDP: total value of goods and services produced ■ Life expectancy increases w/ clean water, health care, stable food industrializing/developing: part way through transition, decreasing death rate, rising DGP Access to clean water, healthcare, food-IMR + CDR decline; TFR high from lack of education, generational lag; rapid growth from high CBR/low CDR Industrialized/developed: low DR, high GDP, low TFR ■ Increased family income, TFR declines from more opportunities for women, more family planning/contraceptives; slowing growth rate Step 4 - post-industrialized/highly developed TFR declines further, spending money/time on education or career and more contraception; population decline; longest life expectancy UNIT 4: Earth Systems and Resources NOTES ● ● ● Earth's structure O ● O O O O Plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, transform O O Divergent: moving away from each other; magma plume forces plates apart--forms mid oceanic ridges, volcanoes, seafloor spreading, rift valleys Convection currents: magma heated rises to lithosphere, then cools and expands, forcing oceanic plates apart--solidifies to new lithosphere then spreading magma forces oceanic plate into subduction zone Convergent: moving toward each other; leads to subduction--forms mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, volcanoes O O O Core: dense mass of solid nickel, iron, etc O Mantle: liquid magma surrounding the core, liquified by heat from core Asthenosphere: flexible outer layer of mantle beneath lithosphere Lithosphere: thin layer of rock on top of mantle broken up into tectonic plates Crust: top layer of the earth. Soil formation and properties: clay, silt, sand O Services: cycles nutrients by decomposition, provides habitats for decomposing organisms, filters runoff/water by trapping pollutants in pore spaces/roots, anchors roots of plants Weathering: physical (ex. wind), biological (ex. roots), chemical (ex. Acid rain) ■ ■ O Oceanic-oceanic: one subducts under another, forcing magma up to lithosphere surface and forming mid ocean volcanoes or offshore trenches Transform: slide past each other--forms earthquakes ■ Earthquakes: when rough edges of plates get stuck on each other--pressure builds as plates slide, but edges stay stuck until stress overcomes the fault and the plates release energy that shakes the lithosphere Oceanic-continental: oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate, melts into magma; forces magma up to lithosphere and forces coastal mountains, volcanoes, trenches, tsunamis Continental-continental: one subducts underneath, forcing surface crust upward ■ O Rocks broken into smaller pieces, carried away and deposited by erosion--the more organic matter, the more humus and then the more mature the soil will be Degradation: loss of topsoil from tilling, erosion from loss of vegetation--dries soil and removes nutrients + soil organisms ■ ■ Compression of soil from machines making dry soil erode and support less plant growth Nutrient depletion from growing crops on the same soil Soil texture: clay, silt, sand--bigger pores lets more air and water enter the soil ● Atmosphere: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.04% CO2, 0-4% vapor, 0.93% argon Porosity: amount of pore space soil has--loamy texture of soil is best for vegetation Permeability: how easily water drains through soil-- ^ porosity =^permeability, ^permeability = low water holding capacity Factors increasing H2O holding cap: aerated soil, compost/humus, clay, root structure O Thermosphere: hottest temperature, absorbs harmful rays and radiation, gas molecules glow under radiation creating aurora borealis O Mesosphere (lower temp) O Stratosphere (higher temp): less dense from less pressure from above layers (16-80km)--ozone layer absorbs UVB which mutates DNA O Troposphere (lower temp): weather occurs here (0-16km)--most of the gas molecules are here, 03 is harmful to respiratory systems and forms smog Global wind patterns: O ● Watersheds: all the land that drains into a body of water, determined by slope Convection currents: direct sunlight warms air, which rises and expands then begins to cool, leading to precipitation (cool air can't hold as much vapor), then sinks ■ Air moves from 30 to 0 and 60 from high pressure @ 30--rising = low, sinking = high 0-30: Eastern trade winds East to West driving ocean current clockwise in N hem ■ 30-60: Westerlies West to East driving weather patterns Coriolis Effect: difference in pressure of the equator be earth spins faster @ 30 than 60--deflection of objects through atmosphere O vegetation/soil composition plays a role in the draining of watersheds ^ vegetation = ^ infiltration + groundwater, ^ slope =^ velocity + more erosion, soil permeability - runoff vs infiltration rate Estuaries + wetlands' ecosystem services: tourism revenue, water infiltration, habitats for food, storm protection absorbing/buffering floods, maintain drinking water quality, commercial fisheries Eutrophication: nutrient pollution--algae bloom from increased nitrogen and phosphorus = less sunlight = death for plants under the surface--bacteria use 02 for decomposition creating dead zones which are low in oxygen ● ● O ● O O O Solar radiation--albedo: proportion of light that is reflected by surface Higher albedo = reflect more light and absorb less heat Algae bloom then algae death, in which bacteria break down algae and use the O2 in water, leading to dead zones and leading to bacteria decomposing MORE animals--positive feedback loop Sources: synthetic fertilizer, animal waste, discharge from sewage treatment Endocrine disruptors Sediment pollution: deforestation, urbanization, tilling fields--increases turbidity leading to less photosynthesis O O Geography and climate: climate determined by insolation, mountains disrupt wind, oceans moderate temperature Mountains: moist air from the ocean hits windward side of the mountain, causing lush vegetation // leeward side has dry air descending the side, leading to arid conditions w warming air O El Nino and La Nina: upwelling zones have winds blowing warm surface water away from land masses, drawing up colder water to replace it--brings nutrients to the surface and leads to productive fishing O Thermohaline circulation: water from Gulf of Mexico goes to North pole, cools and sinks at poles, spreading along ocean floor and rising up in shallow current at upwelling zone ENSO: pattern of shifting atmospheric pressure + ocean currents in ocean between SA + Australia/SEA--shifts between el nino (warmer) and la nina (cooler, drier) along SA Surface absorbing sunlight gives off infrared radiation Urban areas are hotter be low albedo of blacktop O Unit 5: Land and Water Use NOTES ● Tragedy of the Commons: individuals use shared/public resources and degrade them bc nobody directly suffers consequences of depleting or degrading it--there is no penalty for overusing or polluting public resources Solve by private land ownership, fees or tax for use, taxes/fines for pollution Clearcutting: trees O ■ O El Nino: trade winds weaken then reverse, bringing heat and precipitation to Americas and cooler conditions in Australia Flooding + landslides from logging machinery compacting soil: sunlight drying soil, loss of root structure + erosion decrease H2O holding capacity Tree plantations: lower biodiversity by growing single species forests, which have less resilience and habitat diversity; lack of structural complexity due to same age of planting O Benefits of forests: filtering of air pollutants, removal of O2 from atmosphere, habitat for organisms O Consequences of deforestation: less air filtering and carbon sequestration, slash and burn method released CO2, N2O, and vapor to the atmosphere ● Suppressed upwelling + less productive fisheries in SA, warmer winter in NA, decreased hurricane activity, weakened monsoon activity in India + SEA La Nina: stronger than normal trade winds, increased upwelling in SA brings cooler conditions to US, warmer to Australia Stronger upwelling, better fisheries, worse tornado activity, cooler weather in Americas ■ O O Soil erosion from clear cutting: loss of stabilizing root structure, removing soil organic matter and nutrients, depositing sediments in streams and warming the water +^ turbidity Increased soil + stream temp: loss of tree shade increasing temperature ● Sustainable forestry: Agricultural impacts: methods and mechanics O Monocropping: one species grown, efficient for harvest and pesticide application but decreases biodiversity, increases soil erosion, decreases habitat diversity O Tilling: mixing and breaking up soil to make planting easier BUT increases erosion, promotes loss of topsoil nutrients and organic matter, increased PM in air and sediments in water Slash and Burn: cutting vegetation to clear land for agriculture and return nutrients in plants to soil BUT deforestation causes loss of biodiversity, habitat, sequestration, loss of air pollution filtration; releases GHGs, increases PM, lowers albedo O Synthetic fertilizers: don't return organic matter to soil, leaching--water has too many nutrients and seeps into groundwater or surface water, contaminating water ● Irrigation: furrow, drip, spray, flood Furrow: trench along crops, filled with water--easy and inexpensive (66 efficient) Flood: flood entire field, easier but disruptive to plants, can waterlog soil and drown plants (80 efficient) Drip: most efficient, most expensive, avoids waterlogging and conserves water (95 efficient) O O Spray: ground or surface water into nozzles, more expensive but more efficient than flood or furrow O Waterlogging: overwatering saturates the soil, filling all soil pore space with water and not allowing any air into pores so the roots can't take in 02 ■ Drip irrigation or soil aeration (poke holes in soil) O Soil salinization: process of salt building up in soil over time ● ● ● ● ● ● O O O O Pest Control: pesticides are toxic to pests Can cause pests to become resistant to overuse, with genetic biodiversity giving some pests resistance to pesticide--it artificially selects pests with resistance by killing the rest and only leaving the resistant ones GMOs: gene for pest resistant trait is added to the plant Increase herbicide use ■ O O drip irrigation or soil aeration, flushing with freshwater Global human water use: mostly agricultural, then industrial, then municipal Aquifers useable groundwater (water in pore space of rock and sediment layers) deposits for humans, replenished by groundwater recharge from rain water percolating--unconfined aquifers recharge quickly, confined aquifers recharge slowly Groundwater for irrigation has small amounts of salt, which is left behind in soil after water evaporates, and it can reach toxic levels and dehydrate roots ■ Integrated pest management: pest control that minimizes environmental damage, reducing pesticide use O Biocontrols, intercropping, crop rotation, natural predators Mining O Leave crop vulnerable because there is no genetic variation, so if there is a pest that affects the crops, there is no chance of a genetic mutation providing an adaptive trait Surface mining: removing overburden to access ore--open pit, strip, mountaintop removal, placer Removal of vegetation and soil: topsoil erosion, habitat loss, increased stream turbulence, increased PM ■ Mining moves deeper underground, more expensive and dangerous Subsurface mining: more expensive from higher insurance and healthcare costs for workers Risks: bad ventilation => toxic gas exposure, mine shaft collapse, injury from falling rocks, lung cancer, etc ■ Vertical shaft drilled into ground, elevator carries down workers and transport the resource Environmental impacts of mining: rainwater carries sulfuric acid to streams or ground water, lowering pH of water and making toxic metals soluble in water ■ Methane release from coal mining, continues to seep out after the mine closes PM from soot and particulates Mine reclamation: filling of empty mine shafts/hole, restoring original contours of land, returning topsoil w/ acids removed, replanting of native plants ■ Urbanization: urban sprawl from cities to suburbs O More impervious surfaces, less vegetation, increased CO2, more habitat destruction, increased temperatures, depleted water sources O Reduce urban runoff by: using permeable pavement, planting trees, using public transportation, building vertically Ecological footprints: resource use and waste production for each individual or group O Reduce by: reducing waste or energy, reducing amount of water used, changing diet, making houses more eco friendly (energy), reducing waste, encouraging reusing Sustainability: using resources in ways that don't deplete amounts for future use O Sustainable yield: amount of a renewable resource that can be taken without reducing available supply O Sustainable agriculture: contour plowing, perennial crops, terracing, no till, strip cropping, crop rotation, rotational grazing ■ Contour plowing: plowing parallel to natural slopes instead of down slopes to prevent water runoff and erosion, forming mini terraces that catch water runoff Terracing: cutting flat platforms of soil into slope, flatness of terraces catching water and preventing it from being runoff Strip cropping: alternating rows of dense crops with less dense crops to prevent runoff from eroding soil No till: leaving crop remains in soil instead of tilling, which adds organic matter to soil and prevents erosion from loosened soil Windbreaks: using trees or other plants to block wind from eroding topsoil Aquaculture: fish and aquatic farming O Advantages: efficient, small amounts of water and fuel O Disadvantages: contamination from waste, escapees breeding with wild fish, decreasing biodiversity Ecologically Sustainable Forestry: forestry that minimizes damage to ecosystems (habitat destruction, soil erosion, etc) O Selective cutting/strip cutting--only cutting some trees to preserve habitat O Using human and pack animal labor to minimize soil compaction from machinery O Replanting species being logged O Reforestation, recycling wood, reusing wood O Fire suppression is BAD--want closely controlled and small scale fires to get rid of dry biomass buildup Unit 6: Energy Resources and Consumption NOTES ● Nonrenewable energy sources exist in a fixed amount and involve energy transformation that can't be replaced O Renewable sources are replenished @ rate of consumption Depletable renewables: can run out if overused, like wood, charcoal, ethanol ■ Nondepletable renewable: not run out if overused, like solar, wind ● ● ● Non Renewables are replenished in too long of a time scale for humans to use (ex. Nuclear power, fossil fuels) Trends in Energy Use O O Developed nations use more energy per capita, but developing countries use more energy in total (^pop) Canady, US, France, Germany... Developing nations are industrializing so use will increase on a per person basis as higher standards of living are achieved ■ O Most used are oil, coal, gasoline, natural gas FOLLOWED BY hydroelectric energy and nuclear Subsistence fuels are used in developing nations, biomass you can easily gather Fossil fuel use depends on reserves and accessibility of reserves, which will also impact price (fracking opens new reserves, decreasing price and increasing use) O Governments can mandate certain energy source mixes and use taxes to discourage or rebates to encourage Subsistence fuels: fuels that are accessible and used in developing countries, such as wood and charcoal Natural gas: mostly methane, on top of trapped oil deposits O Remains of dead life are buried under layers of rocks, converted into oil and natural gas over time Cleanest fossil fuel as it produces least CO2 when burned Fracking: extends access to natural gas O O O O O O Gas that is trapped under rock is released from cracking the rock with water--extends supply of natural gas Fossil fuels: reaction between O2 and hydrocarbons that release heat energy and produce CO2 and H2O Combustion is a step in the carbon cycle, and FFs are burned to release energy while the carbon in them reacts with oxygen to make CO2 O Electricity comes from: heat, then water into steam, which turns a turbine, which powers generator, which makes electricity Coal produces pollutants, releasing CO2, PM, and toxic ash like mercury and lead which can be stored in ponds which can leak O ● Possibility of the well leaking and contaminating groundwater--ponds can overflow and leach, contaminating water and becoming toxic to animals Depletion of groundwater or surface waters Increased seismic activity from wastewater injection wells Crude oil: decaying organic matter trapped under rock, compressed into oil Extracted by drilling a well through rock to reach the deposit and then pumping liquid out Spills can clog fish gills or be toxic to plant roots... habitat loss or fragmentation from land being cleared ● Solar energy: O Photovoltaic solar cells capture light energy from the sun and transform it directly into electrical energy. Their use is limited by the availability of sunlight. O Active solar energy systems use solar energy to heat a liquid through mechanical and electric equipment to collect and store the energy captured from the sun. Passive solar energy systems absorb heat directly from the sun without the use of mechanical and electric equipment, and energy cannot be collected or stored. Hydrogen Fuel Cell O SOX, NOx contribute to smog and acid precip Only 30% efficient, most of the energy escapes as heat Cogeneration: using heat and power systems together so heat from electricity is used for a building Solar energy systems have low environmental impact and produce clean energy, but they can be expensive. Large solar energy farms may negatively impact desert ecosystems. Geothermal energy is obtained by using the heat stored in the Earth's interior to heat up water, which is brought back to the surface as steam. The steam is used to drive an electric generator. O The cost of accessing geothermal energy can be prohibitively expensive, as is not easily accessible in many parts of the world. In addition, it can cause the release of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen fuel cells are an alternative to nonrenewable fuel sources. They use hydrogen as fuel, combining the hydrogen and oxygen in the air to form water and release energy (electricity) in the process. Water is the product (emission) of a fuel cell. ● ● Hydrogen fuel cells have low environmental impact and produce no carbon dioxide when the hydrogen is produced from water. However, the technology is expensive and energy is still needed to create the hydrogen gas used in the fuel cell. Wind Energy ● O O O UNIT 7: Atmospheric Pollution NOTES Air Pollutants v Greenhouse Gases CO2 wasn't an initial criteria pollutant in CAA (changed later in 09)--does not directly lower air quality in terms of human health O Wind turbines use the kinetic energy of moving air to spin a turbine, which in turn converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electricity. Wind energy is a renewable, clean source of energy. However, birds and bats may be killed if they fly into the spinning turbine blades. O Impacts of Coal Combustion: CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, toxic metals, PM O O CO2 is a greenhouse gas, leading to earth warming... IS NOT AN AIR POLLUTANT O Respiratory irritant, tropospheric ozone formation (PCS), forms nitric acid (acid rain) EPA, Lead: used to be used commonly in gasoline BUT was phased out in 1974 Primary v Secondary Pollutants: primary come directly from a source (NOx, CO, CO2, VOCS, SO2, PM, hydrocarbons) while secondary are pollutants that have transformed (tropospheric O3, H2SO4, SO4-2, HNO3, NO3) Photochemical smog: needs NO2 (broken into NO and O), VOCs (hydrocarbons) which easily evaporate, 03 (from when NO2 broken down... damaging to plant stomata) Respiratory irritant, sulfur aerosol reduces visibility, grey smog, acid precipitation when combined with H2O and O2 to make sulfuric acid O Needs sunlight, which drives creation of 03 (NO2-> NO + O, which makes O bind with O2) O Warmth: the hotter avg temp speeds 03 formation O Regular 03 formation O NOx: released by almost anything--NO forms when N2 and O2 meet in combustion ■ Morning levels make NO2 levels from car exhaust, which leads to the formation of 03--03 peaks in afternoon...03 reacts with NO to form NO2 and O2 again after production is not driven PCS formation Thermal Inversion O VOCs bond with NO to form photochemical oxidants, so 03 will build up instead of returning to O2 and NO2... 03 combines with oxidants to make smog Reduces sunlight, damages plant stomata and irritates animals, increased health care to treat asthma, COPD, bronchitis Increased by vehicle traffic (NO2), gas stations, plastic factories, more sunlight, warmer temperatures, higher electricity demand from NOx emissions ■ ■ Decreased by lowering number of vehicles on road, increased production of electricity from renewable sources that don't emit NOx Urban heat island effect: urban areas have higher surface and air temperature O Problems Lower albedo: concrete and asphalt absorb energy which is given off as IR radiation and heat Less evapotranspiration: water evaporating from surfaces, transpiration from plants brings the heat to the atmosphere BUT less plants means less cooling The process of thermal inversion ■ Warmest air should be at earth's surface, and cool as the altitude rises--when warm air rises, convection currents takee air pollutants away from the surface Cooler air masses may become trapped near the surface from a warm front over it or from hot urban surfaces trying to cool overnight air pollutants remain at the surface Pollutants trapped closer to earth ■ Respiratory irritation like asthma Less tourism, less photosynthesis ● Atmospheric CO2 and Particulates O Natural pollutants from lightning strikes (NOx), forest fires (CO, PM, NOx), plants (VOCs), volcanoes (SO2, PM, CO, NOx) O Respiration releases CO2 O PM sourced from sea salt, pollen, ash... leading to haze (reduced visibility) O Aerobic decomposition: decomposition of organic matter from bacteria and decomposers with oxygen O Anaerobic decomposition: organic matter in lower oxygen free conditions, releasing CH4 O Particular matter: particles suspended in air ● O O O Indoor Air pollutants Developing nations use subsistence fuels like wood, charcoal which release CO, PM, NOX, VOCs and are combusted indoors Developed nations use commercial fuels, burned in well ventilated areas PM from smoke, dust, asbestos ■ O O O O ■ O ■ O PM10 < 10 micrometers: dust, pollen, ash, mold--too small to be filtered by cilia, causing respiratory tract PM2.5 <2.5 micrometers: particles from combustion from smaller particles, more likely to travel deeper into lungs leading to harsher health conditions Carbon Monoxide from incomplete combustion from low 02 levels or temperature Asphyxiant: causes suffocation due to binding to hemoglobin in blood Developed nations: CO is released to homes by malfunctioning natural gas furnace ventilation Developing nations: CO from indoor biomass combustion ■ ■ VOCs: used in home products that vaporize air, enter air, and irritate eyes Used in adhesives and sealants Asbestos: silicate particle used in insulation, though now is linked to lung cancer and asbestosis Not dangerous until insulation is disturbed and asbestos enters air--should be removed by professionals Formaldehyde: adhesive in particle board and carpet glue Radon gas: released by decaying uranium from rocks underground, entering houses through cracks in foundation ■ ■ ■ Damages central nervous system in children due to a smaller size and developing brain Reduction of Air Pollutants: reduce emissions by conserving, using renewable energy, driving less O Clean Air Act: EPA sets acceptable levels for air pollutants--emissions levels from power plants and facilities are monitored, and they can tax corporations that release above levels O Pollution credits: companies that make less emissions than levels earn credits, which can be sold to others O Technology: ■ Lead: found in paint of old homes, paint will chip off walls and can be eaten by children or inhaled as dust Can enter drinking water (Flint, Michigan) ■ ■ Can seep into groundwater 2nd leading cause of lung cancer after smoking Use airborne radon monitors, seal cracks in foundation Vapor recovery nozzle Catalytic converter: contains metals that bind to NOx and CO... CC converts NOx and CO into CO2, N2, O2, H2O Crushed limestone can reduce SO2 from coal plants, as burning coal with limestone creates calcium carbonate which we can use for productive purposes Dry Scrubbers (NOx, SOX, VOCs): large column filled with chemicals that absorb oxides from exhaust streams ● Calcium oxide is an additive which combines with SO2 to make calcium sulfite Wet Scrubbers: chemical agents that absorb or neutralize NOX, SOX VOCs but also includes mist nozzles that trap PM into water droplets Mist with pollutants and PM get trapped Reduction of PM ■ Electrostatic precipitator: emissions are passed through a device with a negatively charged electrode to give particles a negative charge which will make particles stick to positively charged plates ● Acid Deposition O SO2 from coal plants, metal factories, vehicles; NOx from vehicles, diesel generators, coal plants ■ Trying to reduce emissions will reduce deposition--more public transit, renewable energy sources, more efficient electricity use SO2 + NOX react with O2 and H2O, making nitric and sulfuric acid (HNO3, H2SO4) ■ Acids dissociate with water around, into sulfate and nitrate ions O Acid rain decreases soil and water pH and can limit tree growth in forests O Leads to soil/water acidification: H+ ions leech other nutrients from soil, and can make toxic metals more soluble in mercury and water O Mitigating rain ■ Limestone can neutralize acidic water or soil--Calcium carbonate can for HCO3 and give of Ca2+ which neutralizes soil and water ● Noise pollution: sound at a volume that can cause stress or hearing loss, like construction, transportation, industrial activity, domestic activity O Wildlife effects: animal communication, migration, and damaged hearing UNIT 8: Aquatic & Terrestrial Pollution NOTES UNIT 9: Global Change NOTES ● Greenhouse Effect: greenhouse gases trap the sun's heat in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth warm enough to keep us alive--sunlight enters the atmosphere, gets absorbed by the surface, land, water, and biosphere and some is reflected back into space O Greenhouse gases: water vapor (non-anthropogenic), CO2, NH4, NOx, CFO, O, carbons, and hydrofluorocarbons Global warming: caused by increase in gases' levels. EX. industrialization ^^ NH4, CO2, NOx; fossil fuels ^^ soot and aerosols ● Can prevent predators from hearing prey or vice versa O Aquatic effects: from noise of ship engines, military sonar, seismic air blasts from oil and gas surveying ships Physiological stress: hearing loss, disrupted communication, mating calls, predator and prey navigation Seismic surveying sends air blasts down to the water and is used to search for oil BUT so loud ● ● O ■ GHG are long lasting, so global warming would continue for another 150 years even if we stopped Enhanced greenhouse effect from burning fossil fuels increases warming, changes the environment--impact on local weather from storms, precipitation, temperatures GHG formation: decomposition of organic matter, sewage/water treatment plants, cement production CO2: biggest anthropogenic contributor to GH effect O O O O ■ sourced from respiration; decomposition of matter; burning of fossil fuels like oil, coal, natural gas for electricity; clearing of land and burning of weeds; volcanoes O Stored by plants and forests as well as oceans--when land is cleared, stored carbon is converted to CO2 from burning or decomposition NOX (NO2, NO): build up in greater concentrations as they are stable and do not break down quickly, more efficient than CO2, contributes to brown smog ■ Sourced from combustion, excess fertilizers, crop burning, kerosene heaters, incinerators, deforestation, cigarettes, soil, lightning Nitrogen + moisture = nitric acid: acid precipitation, acidifying lakes, killing fish, leaching heavy metals into water supplies NH4: hydrocarbon, second biggest contributor to GH effect after CO2 ■ ■ Ocean Reactions O Ocean Acidification: ocean has taken up ½ of CO2 released in the air since 1800s Sourced from natural gas in the crust, decomposition of plant/animal matter, digestive tract of farm animals, coal mining, paddy fields for rice production Plankton perform photosynthesis to make energy, taking carbon from the atmosphere. When they die, they sink to the bottom and drop out of the carbon cycle, where the carbon remains sequestered like in sinks. If CO2 levels are high enough, the top layer will become acidic and reduce calcium carbonate--the carbonate could dissolve much faster in shell making which impacts biodiversity/productivity of ocean ecosystems O Ocean warming: GHG trap more energy from the sun, making oceans absorb more heat and increasing temperatures and ^^ sea level ■ Property damage and loss of life from altered climate patterns Ozone: reactive form of oxygen, generally concentrated in an upper stratospheric layer O Absorbs sun's UV radiation, absorbs fraction of UV light of UVB radiation, preventing skin cancer, cataracts, and damage to crops + organisms Ozone depletion: CFCs were developed as refrigerants, solvents, etc. but they didn't break down in the atmosphere--they linger and are carried into the stratosphere CFCs break down when facing strong UV, releasing chlorine which damages the ozone layer--there is an ozone hole over Antarctica ● Vienna Convention w/ international cooperation to reduce CFC levels Ozone in the troposphere: atmospheric pollutant, component of smog, formed by VOCs and NOx with sunlight--reactants come from vehicles, construction, industrial, etc. Climate Change: temperature increases, rising sea levels, rainfall changes, extreme events O Changes in global climate shifted species' range and led to reorganization of communities and biomes Impact on weather and climate cause an impact on biodiversity O Invasive species: alien species whose introduction will likely cause harm to native species O Characteristics: generalist, r-selected species, no natural predator (therefore advantage over other species) ● ● O ■ Endangered species: habitats are lost or altered, leaving species threatened with extinction O Characteristics: extensively hunted, limited diet, outcompeted by invasive species, limited habitat requirements, specialist niches (low reproductive rates, few offspring, specific habitat) Selective pressures: external factors that change the behavior of organisms Ex. Resource availability (food, water, habitat), abiotic environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, tree cover, salinity), biological factors (pathogens, disease) Not all species that are introduced are invasive, the species that disrupt balance of trophic relationships and abiotic conditions O O Human impacts on biodiversity: HIPPCO O Habitat destruction, invasive species, population growth, pollution, climate change, over exploitation Habitat fragmentation: construction, clearing of land, logging Climate change: rising sea levels from thermal expansion, changes in precipitation patterns, melting land ice Domestication and loss of biodiversity: artificial selection, where humans select organisms with the best traits to continue and enhance ■ Loss of genetic diversity, so domestication for economic return = loss of biodiversity Restore lost habitats, add protected areas,