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Donna Costanz
11/29/2025
Environmental Science
EARTH VOCABULARY NOTES/DEFINITIONS
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Nov 29, 2025
•
Earth Science Vocabulary Definitions
Donna Costanz
@donnacostanz_bbnm
1 / 6
Earth's Structure
Earth isn't a perfect sphere—it's an oblate spheroid, which means it's slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. Our planet is made up of several major layers that work together as a system.
The lithosphere is the solid outer shell of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle. The hydrosphere covers all of Earth's liquid water—oceans, lakes, rivers, and even groundwater.
Surrounding everything is the atmosphere, the layer of gases enveloping our planet. The lowest layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere, which extends about 12 km up from Earth's surface and contains most of our air and weather.
Fun Fact: The troposphere contains about 75-80% of the atmosphere's total mass, despite being the thinnest atmospheric layer!
Mapping Earth: Coordinate Systems
Imagine wrapping Earth in a giant grid—that's essentially what a coordinate system does! It gives every location a unique address using the intersection of two lines, typically latitude and longitude.
The equator is the imaginary line circling Earth halfway between the North and South Poles, dividing our planet into northern and southern hemispheres. Latitude measures the angular distance north or south of the equator, from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles. Lines of the same latitude are called parallels.
Longitude measures east or west of the Prime Meridian (which runs through Greenwich, England), ranging from 0° to 180°. These imaginary semicircles running north-to-south are called meridians.
Remember this: Latitude lines (parallels) run east-west, while longitude lines (meridians) run north-south. Think "latitude is flat-itude" to help remember!
Special Lines and Navigation
The sun's position creates some important reference lines on Earth. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° north) marks the northernmost point where the sun's rays hit directly overhead during the June solstice. Similarly, the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° south) marks where direct sunlight reaches its southernmost point during the December solstice.
Navigation is how we determine our position on Earth. One navigational measurement is altitude, which tells us how high an object appears above the horizon from our viewpoint.
Time measurement is also connected to Earth's geography. Apparent Solar Time is based on the sun's actual position in the sky and varies slightly from clock time. Solar noon occurs when the sun reaches its highest point in your local sky.
Try this: Next sunny day, notice the sun's position at different times. At solar noon, objects cast their shortest shadow of the day!
Time and Fields
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is based on solar observations along the Prime Meridian, providing a standard reference point for global timekeeping.
When studying Earth, scientists often work with fields—regions where we can measure similar quantities (like temperature or pressure) at every location. To visualize these fields on maps, we use isolines, which connect points of equal value.
Specific types of isolines include isobars (connecting points of equal air pressure) and isotherms (connecting points of equal temperature). These help meteorologists track and predict weather patterns.
Real-world application: Weather forecasters use isolines on maps to show you where temperatures and pressure systems are changing—this helps predict when storms might develop!
Mapping Elevation
Contour lines are special isolines that connect places with the same elevation, showing the shape of the land. Maps featuring these lines are called topographic maps or contour maps, and they display elevation fields.
The contour interval tells you the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines. A smaller interval (like 10 feet) shows more detail than a larger one (like 100 feet). The pattern of these lines reveals the topography—the shape of the land surface.
When contour lines are close together, they show steep terrain. When they're far apart, the land is relatively flat. By reading these patterns, you can visualize mountains, valleys, and plains without seeing a 3D model.
Map reading tip: When contour lines form a circle with smaller values inside, that's a depression or hole. When they form a circle with higher values inside, that's a hill or mountain!
Understanding Gradient
The gradient (also called slope) measures how quickly elevation changes between two points in a field. It tells you how steep the land is—a critical factor for everything from hiking to construction projects.
Calculating gradient is straightforward: divide the vertical change (rise) by the horizontal distance (run). A steep mountain might have a gradient of 1:2 (one unit up for every two units across), while gentle hills have much smaller ratios.
Gradients help engineers design roads, hikers plan routes, and geologists understand erosion patterns. They're essential for understanding how water, wind, and gravity interact with the landscape.
Everyday example: Road signs that warn "10% grade" are telling you the gradient—in this case, the road rises or falls 10 feet for every 100 feet of horizontal distance!
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Earth Science Vocabulary Definitions
Donna Costanz
@donnacostanz_bbnm
Welcome to the Planet Earth unit! This guide covers essential geographic terms and concepts that help us understand and navigate our planet. You'll learn about Earth's structure, coordinate systems, and how we represent Earth's features on maps.
Earth's Structure
Earth isn't a perfect sphere—it's an oblate spheroid, which means it's slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. Our planet is made up of several major layers that work together as a system.
The lithosphere is the solid outer shell of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle. The hydrosphere covers all of Earth's liquid water—oceans, lakes, rivers, and even groundwater.
Surrounding everything is the atmosphere, the layer of gases enveloping our planet. The lowest layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere, which extends about 12 km up from Earth's surface and contains most of our air and weather.
Fun Fact: The troposphere contains about 75-80% of the atmosphere's total mass, despite being the thinnest atmospheric layer!
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Mapping Earth: Coordinate Systems
Imagine wrapping Earth in a giant grid—that's essentially what a coordinate system does! It gives every location a unique address using the intersection of two lines, typically latitude and longitude.
The equator is the imaginary line circling Earth halfway between the North and South Poles, dividing our planet into northern and southern hemispheres. Latitude measures the angular distance north or south of the equator, from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles. Lines of the same latitude are called parallels.
Longitude measures east or west of the Prime Meridian (which runs through Greenwich, England), ranging from 0° to 180°. These imaginary semicircles running north-to-south are called meridians.
Remember this: Latitude lines (parallels) run east-west, while longitude lines (meridians) run north-south. Think "latitude is flat-itude" to help remember!
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Special Lines and Navigation
The sun's position creates some important reference lines on Earth. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° north) marks the northernmost point where the sun's rays hit directly overhead during the June solstice. Similarly, the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° south) marks where direct sunlight reaches its southernmost point during the December solstice.
Navigation is how we determine our position on Earth. One navigational measurement is altitude, which tells us how high an object appears above the horizon from our viewpoint.
Time measurement is also connected to Earth's geography. Apparent Solar Time is based on the sun's actual position in the sky and varies slightly from clock time. Solar noon occurs when the sun reaches its highest point in your local sky.
Try this: Next sunny day, notice the sun's position at different times. At solar noon, objects cast their shortest shadow of the day!
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Time and Fields
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is based on solar observations along the Prime Meridian, providing a standard reference point for global timekeeping.
When studying Earth, scientists often work with fields—regions where we can measure similar quantities (like temperature or pressure) at every location. To visualize these fields on maps, we use isolines, which connect points of equal value.
Specific types of isolines include isobars (connecting points of equal air pressure) and isotherms (connecting points of equal temperature). These help meteorologists track and predict weather patterns.
Real-world application: Weather forecasters use isolines on maps to show you where temperatures and pressure systems are changing—this helps predict when storms might develop!
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Improve your grades
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By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Mapping Elevation
Contour lines are special isolines that connect places with the same elevation, showing the shape of the land. Maps featuring these lines are called topographic maps or contour maps, and they display elevation fields.
The contour interval tells you the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines. A smaller interval (like 10 feet) shows more detail than a larger one (like 100 feet). The pattern of these lines reveals the topography—the shape of the land surface.
When contour lines are close together, they show steep terrain. When they're far apart, the land is relatively flat. By reading these patterns, you can visualize mountains, valleys, and plains without seeing a 3D model.
Map reading tip: When contour lines form a circle with smaller values inside, that's a depression or hole. When they form a circle with higher values inside, that's a hill or mountain!
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Understanding Gradient
The gradient (also called slope) measures how quickly elevation changes between two points in a field. It tells you how steep the land is—a critical factor for everything from hiking to construction projects.
Calculating gradient is straightforward: divide the vertical change (rise) by the horizontal distance (run). A steep mountain might have a gradient of 1:2 (one unit up for every two units across), while gentle hills have much smaller ratios.
Gradients help engineers design roads, hikers plan routes, and geologists understand erosion patterns. They're essential for understanding how water, wind, and gravity interact with the landscape.
Everyday example: Road signs that warn "10% grade" are telling you the gradient—in this case, the road rises or falls 10 feet for every 100 feet of horizontal distance!
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user