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(NICHE PICKING). NURTURE AFFECTS NATURE - NEURAL PLASTICITY. AS IN MAGUIRE ET ATS STUDY OF SPATIAL MEMORY IN TRY DRIVERS. OR BLAKEMORE AND COOPERS STUDY OF PERCEPTION IN KITTENS. EPIGENETICS MATERIAL IN EACH CELL THAT ACTS AS SWITCHES TO TURN GENES ON AND OFF WHICH IS PASSED OH TO SUBSEQUENT GENERATIONS. EXPLANS CHY 1Z TWINS AND CLONES ARE NOT IDENTICAL NEWILIAMSS Peterson and Petercon replication INTRODUCTION THE AIM WAS TO PROVE THAT THINGS ONLY STAY IN SHORT TERM MEMORY FOR AROUND 20 SECONDS AND THEN, IF IT IS NOT REHEARSED, IT DISAPPEARS FOREVER. METHOD A LAB EXPERIMENT WAS CONDUCTED IN WHICH 24 PARTICIPANTS (PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS) HAD TO RECALL TRIGRAMS (MEANINGLESS THREE-CONSONANT SYLLABLES), THE TRIGRAMS WERE PRESENTED ONE AT A TIME AND HAD TO BE RECALLED AFTER INTERVALS OF 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 OR 18 SECONDS RESPECTIVELY FOR EACH TRIAL. NO TWO SUCCESSIVE TRIGRAMS CONTAINED ANY OF THE SAME LETTERS AFTER HEARING A TRIGRAM PARTICIPANTS WERE ASKED TO COUNT BACKWARDS IN THREES OR FOURS FROM A SPECIFIED RANDOM NUMBER UNTIL THEY SAW A RED LIGHT APPEAR (THEN THEY RECALLED THE TRIGRAM). THIS IS KNOWN AS THE BROWN PETERSON TECHNIQUE, AND THE PURPOSE WAS TO PREVENT REHEARSAL. Evaluation THE RESEARCHERS ELIMINATED NOISE AND OTHER FACTORS THAT COULD OF HAD AN INFLUENCE ON MEMORY. THEREFORE THERE IS GOOD CONTROL USING STANDARDISED PROCEDURES TO MAKE SURE EACH PARTICIPANT EXPERIENCE THE SAME PROCESS. HOWEVER, IT LACKED EXTERNAL VALIDITY AS THEY USED VERY ARTIFICIAL STIMULI (PEOPLE DO NOT TRY TO RECALL TRIGRAMS IN REAL LIFE). Bahrick 1975 study THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD THE AIM OF THIS STUDY WAS TESTING PEOPLES ABILITY TO RECALL AND RECOGNISE NAMES AND FACES OVER TIME AND TO SEE THE POTENTIAL DURATION OF LONG TERM MEMORY. PARTICIPANTS WERE ASKED TO LIST THE NAMES THEY COULD REMEMBER OF THOSE IN THEIR GRADUATING CLASS IN A FREE RECALL TEST. THERE WERE VARIOUS CONDITIONS INCLUDING A FREE RECALL TEST, WHERE PARTICIPANTS TRIED TO REMEMBER NAMES OF PEOPLE IN A GRADUATE CLASS; A PHOTO RECOGNITION TEST, CONSISTING OF 50 PICTURES: A NAME RECOGNITION TEST FOR EX-SCHOOL FRIENDS. EVALUATION •THE EXPERIMENT HAS HIGH ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY BECAUSE THE STUDY USED REAL LIFE MEMORIES. IT IS A FIELD EXPERIMENT BECAUSE RECALLING SCHOOL FRIENDS IS NOT AN ARTIFICIAL TASK AND IS ACTUALLY SOMETHING YOU MIGHT FIND YOURSELF DOING IN EVERYDAY LIFE. A WEAKNESS OF THIS STUDY IS THAT SINCE BAHRICK WAS TESTING RETRIEVAL OF EVENTS THAT OCCURRED YEARS BEFORE, HE COULDN'T CONTROL EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES. AN EXAMPLE OF SUCH A VARIABLE COULD BE THAT THERE WASN'T A WAY OF HIM TO KNOW WHETHER OR NOT THE PARTICIPANTS WERE PRACTISING THESE NAMES OVER THE YEARS AND CONSTANTLY RECALLING THEM. FINDINGS: RECALL MEMORY- WITHIN 15 YEARS 60% PARTICIPANTS REMEMBERED. WITHIN 48 YEARS THIS WENT DOWN TO 30%. RECOGNITION MEMORY- WITHIN 15 YEARS AN OUTSTANDING 90% PARTICIPANTS WERE ACCURATE. WITHIN 48 YEARS 80% WERE ACCURATE Bahrick et al. (1975) Key Study summary Athelia, Stephanie, Tasha, Jennifer Reciprocity (Turn-taking) -A CONVERSATION BUT WITHOUT WORDS AS THE INFANT IS UNABLE TO SPEAK -A CAREGIVER-INFANT INTERACTION WHERE EACH PARTY RESPONDS TO THE OTHER AND THE BEHAVIOUR OF EACH PARTY ELICITS A RESPONSE. keywords- attachment, two -way,mutual process International cynchrony (Mirroring) -WHEN A CAREGIVER AND INFANT REFLECT THE ACTIONS AND EMOTIONS OF THE OTHER IN A COORDINATED WAY FOR EG. PARENTS SMILES THEN BABY SMILES. -THIS IS DIFFERENT TO reciprocity, AS IN RECIPROCITY THE RESPONSES AREN'T NECESSARILY SIMILAR. The origine of psychology WILHELM WUNT ESTABLISHES EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. INVOLVES BREAKING DOWN BEHAVIOURS INTO BASIC ELEMENTS. - INTROSPECTION WAS THE CHOSEN METHOD OF STUDY. WORKED BY ASKING INDIVIDUALS TO ENGAGE IN A TASK AND THEN REFLECT ON THE MENTAL PROCESSES THEY WERE PERFORMING USED TO ESTABLISH GENERAL THEORIES ABOUT MENTAL PROCESSES THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE - SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY USES EMPIRICAL METHODS. - ASSUMPTIONS OF DETERMINISM AND PREDICTABILITY. + THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD REFERS TO THE USE OF METHODS THAT ARE OBJECTIVE, SYSTEMATIC AND REPLICABLE. REPLICATION MEANS RESULTS MIGHT BE ACCEPTED AS TRUE. SCIENTIFIC METHOD ALSO INCLUDES DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES HAT CAN EXPLAIN RESULTS AND CONSTANT TESTING AND REFINING. EVALUATION - WUNDTS METHODS ARE UNRELIABLE (RELIED ON NON OBSERVABLE RESPONSES.) - - SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TESTS ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT BEHAVIOUR BY ESTABLISHING CAUSALITY AND CORRECTING THEORIES. - NOT ALL PSYCHOLOGISTS BELIEVE HUMAN BEHAVIOUR CAN BE EXPLORED USING SCIENTIFIC METHODS - MUCH IS UNOBSERVABLE AND RELIES ON INFERENCES FROM DATA. - INTROSPECTION NOT PARTICULARLY ACCURATE (E.6. NISBETT AND WILSON). - INTROSPECTION STILL USEFUL IN PSYCHOLOGY (E.6. EMPIRICISM ALL KNOWLEDGE OBTAINED THROUGH SENSES-NOT INHERITED Animal studies of attachment TO UNDERSTAND HOW ATTACHMENT AFFECTS HUMANS, ANIMALS WERE OFTEN EXPERIMENTED ON TO UNDERSTAND HOW THEIR BEHAVIOUR WOULD BE AFFECTED. WE WOULD THEN MAKE GENERALISATIONS TO HUMANS (WHICH CARRIES ITS OWN ISSUES, BUT MORE ON THAT LATER) HOWEVER, THEY ALLOWED US TO TEST THINGS WHICH WOULD BE UNETHICAL TO NATURALLY SET UP WITH HUMANS. KONRAD LORENZ'S STUDY 1935 LORENZ (1935) CONDUCTED A STUDY INTO ATTACHMENT AND DEMONSTRATED HOW IMPRINTING OCCURRED WITHIN THE ANIMAL WORLD. LORENZ SPLIT A BATCH OF GOSLING EGGS INTO TWO GROUPS. ONE GROUP REMAINED WITH THE MOTHER WHILE THE OTHER BATCH WAS INCUBATED UNTIL HATCHED AND LORENZ WAS THE FIRST LIVING OBJECT THEY ENCOUNTERED. THE GOSLINGS THAT HATCHED WITH LORENZ WERE FOUND TO IMPRINT THEMSELVES ON HIM AND START FOLLOWING HIM AROUND WHETHER HE WENT. THIS IMPRINTING WAS EVIDENT EVEN WHEN LORENZ MARKED AND MIXED HIS HATCHED GOSLINGS WITH THE NATURAL MOTHER'S GOSLINGS. THOSE FAMILIAR WITH LORENZ STILL FOLLOWED LORENZ WITH NO RECOGNITION FOR THEIR BIOLOGICAL MOTHER AND SEPARATED THEMSELVES TOWARDS LORENZ. THIS PROCESS OF IMPRINTING WAS FOUND TO ONLY OCCUR IF THE ANIMAL WAS EXPOSED TO A MOVING OBJECT DURING A CRITICAL PERIOD WITHIN THE FIRST TWO DAYS AND WAS IRREVERSIBLE ONCE ESTABLISHED. IF AN ANIMAL IS NOT EXPOSED TO A MOVING OBJECT DURING THIS "CRITICAL PERIOD" IT WOULD NOT IMPRINT ITSELF. LORENZ ALSO FOUND THAT BIRDS WHO IMPRINTED ON TO HUMANS WOULD THEN LATER IN LIFE ONCE MATURED ONLY ATTEMPT TO MATE WITH HUMANS. THEREFORE IMPRINTING HAS AN IMPACT ON MATE PREFERENCES TOO, ALSO KNOWN AS SEXUAL IMPRINTING. Shepard 1967 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: -THE AIM OF THIS STUDY WAS TO TEST THE DURATION OF LONG TERM MEMORY AND THE THEORY THAT VISUAL CODING HAS MORE INFORMATION SO IT HAS BETTER MEMORY. -SHOWED 624 MEMORABLE PICTURES TO PARTICIPANTS - AN HOUR LATER HE SHOWED THEM AGAIN TO PARTICIPANTS AMONGST OTHER PICTURES -THERE WAS ALMOST PERFECT RECOLLECTION OF THE PICTURES FOUR MONTHS LATER 50% THE PICTURES WHERE REMEMBERED. EVALUATION: -A WEAKNESS FOR THIS STUDY WOULD BE THE FACT IT HAS LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY AS THESE IMAGES ARE MEANINGLESS AND IN MOST CASES THE PARTICIPANTS MOST LIKELY NEVER SAW THOSE IMAGES BEFORE. -A POSITIVE FOR THIS STUDY WOULD BE HOW IT SHOWED VALID RESULTS. KEY TERMS-ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY-MEASURE OF HOW TEST PERFORMANCE PREDICTS BEHAVIOURS IN REAL-WORLD SETTINGS. OBSERVATIONAL STUDY-PSYCHOLOGY AND STATISTICS, AN OBSERVATIONAL STUDY DRAWS INFERENCES FROM A SAMPLE TO A POPULATION WHERE THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IS NOT UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE RESEARCHER BECAUSE OF ETHICAL CONCERNS OR LOGISTICAL CONSTRAINTS UUU key topic two memory Multi Store Model-Atkinson & Shiffrin Sensory Store Attention Short Term Memory Rehearsal Transfer Retrieval The Multi-Store Model THE MULTI-STORE MODEL IS AN EXPLANATION OF MEMORY PROPOSED BY ATKINSON AND SHIFFRON AND IS A STRUCTURAL MODEL. THEY PROPOSED THAT MEMORY CONSISTS OF 3 MEMORY STORES-SENSORY REGISTER, SHORT TERM MEMORY (STM)AND LONG TERM MEMORY (LTM), AND THAT INFORMATION PASSES FROM STORE TO STORE IN A LINEAR WAY BOTH STM AND LTM ARE LINEAR STORES. Prefrontal Contre Central Executive Long Term Memory SENSORY MEMORY IS THE INFORMATION YOU GET FROM YOUR SENSES. YOUR EYES AND EARS. WHEN YOUR ATTENTION IS PAID TO SOMETHING IN THE ENVIRONMENT IT IS THEN CONVERTED TO SHORT TERM MEMORY. INFORMATION FROM THE SHORT TERM MEMORY IS TRANSFERRED TO THE LONG TERM MEMORY ONLY IF THAT INFORMATION IS REHEARSED (REPEATED). MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL IS REPETITION THAT KEEPS THE INFORMATION IN STM BUT EVENTUALLY SUCH REPETITION WILL CREATE A LTM. Attention Controler IF MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL REPETITION DOES NOT OCCUR. THEN INFORMATION IS FORGOTTEN AND LOST FROM SHORT TERM MEMORY THROUGH THE PROCESS OF DISPLACEMENT OR DECAY. ENCODING IS THE WAY INFORMATION IS CHANGED SO THAT IT CAN BE STORED IN THE MEMORY. THERE ARE THREE MAIN WAYS IN WHICH INFORMATION CAN BE ENCODED (CHANCED). 1.VISUAL (PICTURES). 2.ACOUSTIC (SOUND) 3.SEMANTIC (MEANING). CAPACITY CONCERNS HOW MUCH INFORMATION CAN BE STORED. DURATION REFERS TO THE PERIOD OF TIME INFORMATION CAN LAST IN THE MEMORY STORES. Partal Lobe tphode buffer (perceptul processing) Brock's & Wick Phonological Leng Occipital tobe Visuo-spattal Sketchpad STM+LTM CAPACITY CAPACITY IS THE AMOUNT THE MEMORY STORAGE IS ABLE TO FIT. SHORT TERM MEMORY HAS A LIMITED CAPACITY THAT IS SMALLER THAN THE SENSORY REGISTER'S. LONG TERM MEMORY HAS A VERY LARGE CAPACITY WITH NO LIMIT MEANING THAT IT CAN FIT UNLIMITED INFORMATION. DURATION PETERSON AND PETERSON-USED CONSONANT SYLLABLES AN PRESENTED VERBAL REHEARSAL STM LASTED 18 SECONDS BAHRICK-AFTER 48 YEARS PARTICIPANTS WERE 80% ACCURATE IN FACE RECOGNITION FOR CLASSMATES AND 30% ACCURATE FOR RECALL. EVALUATION-CONSONANT SYLLABLES NOT MEANINGFUL BUT SOME MEMORY ACTIVATES DO NOT INVOLVE SUCH STIMULI. CODING BADDELEY (1966) TO WHETHER STM AND LTM ENCODE INFORMATION IN DIFFERENT WAYS. HE SUSPECTED THAT LTM ENCODED INFORMATION SEMANTICALLY, WHILST STM ENCODED IT ACOUSTICALLY. IF STM AND LTM USE DIFFERENT CODES, THIS WOULD SUPPORT THE VIEW THAT THEY ARE SEPARATE STORES CENTRAL EXECUTIVE Working memory model -CENTRAL EXECUTIVE ACTS AS ATTENTION, ALLOCATES TASKS TO SLAVE SYSTEMS. NO STORAGE. -PHONOLOGICAL LOOD PRESERVES ORDER OF AUDITORY INFORMATION. THE STORE HOLDS THE WORKING LOOPS Interactional synchrony (Mirroring) WHAT IS INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY? || -WHEN A CAREGIVER AND INFANT REFLECT THE ACTIONS AND EMOTIONS OF THE OTHER IN A COORDINATED WAY FOR EG. PARENTS SMILES THEN BABY SMILES. -INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY IS WHEN TWO PEOPLE INTERACT AND TEND TO MIRROR WHAT THE OTHER IS DOING IN TERMS OF THEIR FACIAL AND BODY MOVEMENTS (EMOTIONS AND BEHAVIOURS). -INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY IS FORM OF RHYTHMIC INTERACTION BETWEEN INFANT AND CAREGIVER INVOLVING MUTUAL FOCUS, RECIPROCITY AND MIRRORING OF EMOTION OR BEHAVIOR. INFANTS COORDINATE THEIR ACTIONS WITH CAREGIVERS IN A KIND OF CONVERSATION. HOW IS THIS DIFFERENT TO RECIPROCITY? -THIS IS DIFFERENT TO RECIPROCITY BECAUSE IN RECIPROCITY THE RESPONSES AREN'T NECESSARILY SIMILAR. -INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY IS COPYING BEHAVIOUR AND RECIPROCITY RELATED TO TURN TAKING IN SPEECH. OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES: GENERALLY WELL-CONTROLLED PROCEDURES, WITH BOTH MOTHER OF AND INFANT BEING FILMED, OFTEN FROM MULTIPLE ANGLES. THIS ENSURES THAT VERY FINE DETAILS OF BEHAVIOR CAN BE RECORDED AND LATER ANALYSED. FURTHERMORE, BABIES DON'T KNOW OR CARE THAT THEY ARE BEING OBSERVED SO THEIR BEHAVIOR DOES NOT CHANGE IN RESPONSE TO CONTROLLED OBSERVATION WHICH IS GENERALLY A PROBLEM FOR OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH. THIS IS A STRENGTH OF THIS LINE OF RESEARCH BECAUSE IT MEANS THE RESEARCH HAS GOOD VALIDITY. Caregiver infant interactions cummary KEY TERMS-RECIPROCITY- THIS IS TURN TAKING AND IS USUALLY A CONVERSATION BUT WITHOUT WORDS WHERE THE INFANT OR CAREGIVER REFLECTS THE ACTION OF ANOTHER TO WITHHOLD COMMUNICATION. INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY- THIS IS MIRRORING AND IS WHEN THE INFANT AND CAREGIVER COPY EACH OTHER'S ACTIONS. FORMS OF ATTACHMENT- PRIMARY ATTACHMENT- THE PRIMARY ATTACHMENT BOND IS FORMED WITH THE PERSON MOST INVOLVED IN RAPIDLY RESPONDING TO A BABY'S CRIES AND WHO INITIATES SOCIAL PLAY DURING THE FIRST SEVEN MONTHS OF THE INFANTS LIFE. SECONDARY ATTACHMENT-THOSE OUTSIDE THE PRIMARY FIGURE WITH WHOM A PERSON HAS FORMED AN ATTACHMENT. STAGES OF ATTACHMENT- RUDOLPH SCHAFFER AND PEGGY EMERSON (1964) STUDIED 60 BABIES AT MONTHLY INTERVALS FOR THE FIRST 18 MONTHS OF LIFE (THIS IS KNOWN AS A LONGITUDINAL STUDY). THE CHILDREN WERE ALL STUDIED IN THEIR OWN HOME AND A REGULAR PATTERN WAS IDENTIFIED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT. THE BABIES WERE VISITED MONTHLY FOR APPROXIMATELY ONE YEAR, THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THEIR CARERS WERE OBSERVED, AND CARERS WERE INTERVIEWED. A DIARY WAS KEPT BY THE MOTHER TO EXAMINE EVIDENCE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATTACHMENT. THE FOLLOWING MEASURES WERE RECORDED: STRANGER ANXIETY - RESPONSE TO ARRIVAL OF A STRANGER. SEPARATION ANXIETY - DISTRESS LEVEL WHEN SEPARATED FROM CARER, DEGREE OF COMFORT NEEDEEN CIN RETUBEGREE THAT CHILD LOOKS AT CARER TO CHECK HOW THEY SHOULD RESPOND TO SOMETHING NEW (SECURE BASE). ● Bahricke 1975 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD THE AIM OF THIS STUDY WAS TESTING PEOPLES ABILITY TO RECALL AND RECOGNISE NAMES AND FACES OVER TIME. THE METHOD WAS USING PARTICIPANTS WHO HAD GRADUATED FROM HIGH SCHOOL. THEY WERE FIRST TESTED THROUGH RECALL AND ASKED TO WRITE DOWN THE NAMES OF CLASSMATES THEY REMEMBER THEY THEN USED MEMORY RECOGNITION AND WERE SHOWN IMAGES IN A MATCHING TEST TO TEST THERE LONG TERM MEMORY ABILITY. EVALUATION THE EXPERIMENT USES EMPIRICAL DATE THAT IS QUANTITATIVE WHICH INCREASES THE EXPERIMENTS VALIDITY. DOES NOT CONTROL CONFOUNDING VARIABLES FOR EG THEY MAY HAVE REHEARSED THEIR MEMORY OVER THE YEARS. ANALYSIS PHOTO RECOGNITION IS BETTER THAN RECALL AND LONG TERM MEMORY HAS AN UNLIMITED DURATION. Ö FINDINGS -60% PARTICIPANTS WHO GRADUATED MORE THAN 15 YEARS AGO WERE ABLE TO RECALL SUCCESSFULLY. 90% WE'RE ABOUT TO REMEMBER THROUGH MEMORY RECOGNITION (ONCE THEY WERE SHOWN AN IMAGE OF CLASSMATE) AFTER 45 YEARS RECALL PERCENTAGE DROPPED BY 30%. RECOGNITION MEMORY ONLY WENT DOWN MY 10% AND WAS ON 80% SO IT SHOWS HOW LONG TERM MEMORY HAS NO LIMIT. issues and debates Free Will & Neterminism Free will FREE WILL IS THE IDEA THAT WE CAN PLAY AN ACTIVE ROLE AND HAVE CHOICE IN HOW WE BEHAVE. THE ASSUMPTION IS THAT INDIVIDUALS ARE FREE TO CHOOSE THEIR BEHAVIOUR AND ARE SELF-DETERMINED. Determinism DETERMINISM IS THE VIEW THAT FREE WILL IS AN ILLUSION, AND THAT OUR BEHAVIOUR IS GOVERNED BY INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL FORCES OVER WHICH WE HAVE NO CONTROL. CONSEQUENTLY, OUR BEHAVIOUR IS VIEWED AS PREDICTABLE. TYPES OF DETERMINISM BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM REFERS TO THE IDEA THAT ALL HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IS INNATE AND DETERMINED BY GENES. ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM IS THE VIEW THAT BEHAVIOUR IS CAUSED BY FORCES OUTSIDE THE INDIVIDUAL. THEREFORE, BEHAVIOUR IS CAUSED BY PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE LEARNED THROUGH CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING. PSYCHIC DETERMINISM CLAIMS THAT HUMAN FOR EXAMPLE, EXPERIENCING A TRAUMATIC EVENT IN BEHAVIOUR IS THE RESULT OF CHILDHOOD THE PAST IMPLIES PSYCHIC DETERMINISM. IT IS EXPERIENCES AND INNATE DRIVES (ID, EGO AND ADVOCATED BY FREUD WHO ARGUED THAT EVERY SUPEREGO), AS IN FREUD'S MODEL OF PSYCHOSEXUAL ACTION HAS A CAUSE ROOTED IN THE UNCONSCIOUS DEVELOPMENT. Memory introduction WHAT IS MEMORY-MEMORY IS THE FACULTY OF THE MIND BY WHICH DATA OR INFORMATION IS ENCODED, STORED AND RETRIEVED. MEMORY STORES: IT IS THE RETENTION OF INFORMATION OVER TIME FOR THE PURPOSE OF INFLUENCING FUTURE ACTION. SENSORY REGISTER-IS THE MEMORY THAT WE USE TO STORE ALL INCOMING INFO FROM OUR SENSES. IT HAS A VERY SHORT DURATION OF ABOUT 1-2 SECONDS AND HAS A BIG CAPACITY (BIGGER THAN SHORT TERM MEMORY). USES SENSORY CODING. SHORT TERM MEMORY (STM)-THIS MEMORY STORE STORES INFORMATION FOR A PERIOD OF TIME WHILE WE COMPLETE AN ONGOING TASK. IT HAS A LONGER DURATION THAN THE SENSORY REGISTER OF ABOUT 18-30 SECONDS BUT THIS IS LIMITED. IT'S CAPACITY IS ALSO LIMITED AS LOTS OF MEMORY CAN'T BE STORED IN IT AT ONCE. STM CAN STORE INFORMATION ON BOTH A SENSORY CODE AND SEMANTIC CODE. LONG TERM MEMORY (LTM)-POTENTIAL TO STORE INFORMATION FOR AN UNLIMITED DURATION AS IT RETAINS INFORMATION FOR LONG PERIODS OF TIME. LTM USES SEMANTIC CODING AND HAS A VERY BIG CAPACITY WITH NO LIMIT. MEMORY PROCESS: 1.MEMORY ENCODING 2.MEMORY STORING 3.MEMORY RETRIEVAL KEY TERMS: SEMANTIC CODING-STORING BY ITS MEANING. SENSORY CODING- WHEN WE STORE THROUGH THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. FOR EXAMPLE ACOUSTIC AND VISUAL CODE. MEMORY TECHNIQUES- WAYS WHICH CAN HELP US REMEMBER STUFF. SOME TECHNIQUES INCLUDE WORDS ASSOCIATION, WORDS WITHIN WORDS, DESIGNING STORIES AND READING ALOUD (REHEARSAL). Research Methods The experimental method • AIMS ARE STATED THERE ARE TWO OR MORE LEVELS OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV), MANIPULATED BY THE EXPERIMENTER THE EFFECT IS MEASURED ON A DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) WHICH IS OPERATIONALISED EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES ARE CONTROLLED AND PROCEDURES ARE STANDARDISED •THE HYPOTHESIS STATES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE IV AND DV CAUSAL CONCLUSIONS CAN BE DRAWN. Control of variable. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES VARY SYSTEMATICALLY WITH THE IN. THUS ANY CHANGE IN THE DV MAY BE DUE TO A CONFOUNDING VARIABLE INSTEAD OF THE IN. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES ARE NUISANCE VARIABLES AND MAKE IT HARDER TO DETECT CHANGE IN THE DV. IMUNDANE REALISM IS THE EXTENT TO WHICH FEATURES OF A STUDY MIRROR THE REAL WORLD. GENERALISATION - FINDINGS FROM A STUDY MAY LACK GENERALISABILITY IF THE MATERIALS OR ENVIRONMENT LACK MUNDANE REALISM OR IF PARTICIPANTS KNOW THEY ARE BEING STUDIED. VALIDITY LEGITIMACY. GENUINENESS. INTERNAL VALIDITY - ENHANCED BY CONTROL OF CONFOUNDING VARIABLES. HIGH MUNDANE REALISM. = EXTERNAL VALIDITY - GENERALISING TO OTHER SITUATIONS (ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY) PEOPLE (POPULATION VALIDITY AND HISTORICAL PERIODS (HISTORICAL VALIDITY). Mental Disorders Phobiac EMOTIONAL EXCESSIVE FEAR, ANXIETY AND/OR PANIC CUES BY A SPECIFIC OBJECT OR SITUATION BEHAVIOURAL AVÓIDANCE. FAINT OR FREEZE. INTERFERES WITH EVERYDAY LIFE. COGNITIVE NOT HELPED BY RATIONAL ARGUMENT, UNREASONABLENESS OF THE BEHAVIOUR RECOGNISED Depreccion EMOTIONAL NEGATIVE EMOTIONS SADNESS, LOSS OF INTEREST AND SOMETIMES ANGER BEHAVIOURAL REDUCED OF INCREASED ACTIVITY RELATED TO ENERGY, LESS SLEEP AND/OR EATING COGNITIVE IRRATIONAL NEGATIVE THOUGHTS AND SELF BELIEFS THAT ARE SELF FULL-FILLING OCD EMOTIONAL ANXIETY AND DISTRESS AND AWARENESS THAT IS EXCESSIVE ,LEADING TO SHAME COGNITIVE RECURRENT,INTRUSIVE, UNCONTROLLABLE THOUGHTS (OBSESSIONS),MORE THEN EVERYDAY WORRIES BEHAVIOURAL COMPULSIVE BEHAVIOURS TO REDUCE OBSESSIVE THOUGHTS ,NOT CONNECTED IN A REALISTIC WAY health problem mental scared pressure precautions paininsect horroranxiety disorder panic fear dread afraid confidence Temporary Relief irrational protection suffering emotional Obsessive Thought Compulsive Behavior Anxiety Drug Therapy ANTIPSYCHOTICS WORK BY REDUCING DOPAMINERGIC TRANSMISSION IN AREAS OF BRAIN ASSOCIATED WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA. psych scene TYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS - USE TO COMBAT POSITIVE SYMPTOMS. ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS ALSO CLAIMED TO TREAT NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS. TYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS ARE DOPAMINE ANTAGONISTS - BLOCK ACTION OF DOPAMING AND SO REDUCE HALLUCINATIONS AND DELUSIONS. BETWEEN 60% AND 75% OF D2 RECEPTORS MUST BE BLOCKED FOR DRUGS TO BE EFFECTIVE. ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS SHOW RAPID DISSOCIATION FROM D2 RECEPTORS. ALSO STRONG AFFINITY FOR SEROTONIN RECEPTORS. ALSO ACT AS SEROTONIN AGONISTS. LEADING TO INCREASED DOPAMINE RELEASE IN PREFRONTAL CORTEX TO REDUCE NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS AND COGNITIVE IMPAIRMEN THE MESOLIMBIC PATHWAY VENTRAL TROMENTAL AMA Evaluation ANTIPSYCHOTICS VERSUS PLACEBO - ANTIPSYCHOTICS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN PLACEBO AT REDUCING RELAPSE RATES (LEUCHT ET AT.). • EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SIDE EFFECTS - TYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS IMPACT ON AREAS OF THE BRAIN THAT CONTROL MOTOR ACTIVITY. INCLUDE PARKINSONIAN SYMPTOMS AND TARDIVE DYSKINESIA. and practical application ETHICAL PROBLEMS WITH TYPICAL ANTI -PSYCHOTICS - COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS MAY BE NEGATIVE ALSO HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSE BECAUSE OF SIDE EFFECTS. • ADVANTAGES OF ATYPICAL OVER TYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS - FEWER SIDE EFFECTS THAN TYPICAL LI ANTIPSYCHOTICS SO MORE LIKELY TO CONTINUE WITH MEDICATION. ARE ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS BETTER THAN TYPICAL? CROSSLEY ET AL. CONCLUDE NO DIFFERENCE IN EFFICACY BUT DIFFERENT SIDE EFFECTS. The behaviorist approach CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - ASSOCIATED WITH PAVLOV INVOLVES PAIRING OF NS WITH UCS SO THAT EVENTUALLY NS BECOMES CS CAPABLE OF ELICITING A CR. ·NS + UCS = UCR - AFTER MANY PAIRINGS NS (CS) + CR - TIMING: NS MUST BE SHORTLY BEFORE UCS. EXTINCTION: CS LOSES ITS ABILITY TO PRODUCE CR AFTER A FEW TRIALS IF NO REINFORCEMENT. 1. Before conditioning = Food Unconditioned stimulus 3. During conditioning Tuning response - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING HAS BEEN APPLIED TO THERAPY, E.G. IN TREATMENT OF PHOBIAS. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ONLY APPROPRIATE FOR SOME FORMS OF LEARNING. E6. CONCEPT OF PREPAREDNESS (SELIGMAN) - OPERANT CONDITIONING BASED ON EXPERIMENTAL WORK - ALLOWS ESTABLISHMENT OF CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS. - OPERANT CONDITIONING OVER-RELIANCE ON NON- HUMAN ANIMALS IN RESEARCH, IGNORES POSSIBILITY OF FREE WILL. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: CS + UCS PAIRED AGAIN. LINK MADE MUCH MORE QUICKLY. STIMULUS GENERALISATION: CR ALSO TO STIMULI THAT ARE SIMILAR TO CS. OPERANT CONDITIONING LIKELIHOOD OF REPEATING BEHAVIOR DEPENDS ON ITS CONSEQUENCES. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT INCREASES THE LIKELIMOOD OF A BEHVAVIOUR OCCURRING. -PLEASANT CONSEQUENCES: POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - - REMOVAL OF UNPLEASANT STIMULUS = NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT EFFECTIVE FOR ESTABLISHING A BEHAVIOUR. PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT FOR MAINTAINING IT. - ADDING UNPLEASANT CONSEQUENCE, OR REMOVING PLEASANT STIMULUS PUNISHMENT. EVALUATION LIMITED PERSPECTIVE - BEHAVIOURIST EXPLANATIONS IGNORE THE ROLE PLAYED BY COGNITIVE AND EMOTIONAL FACTORS. KA response Food Unconditioned response Pellet dispenser Food cup Salvation Unconditioned response lights Lever Electric grid 2. Before conditioning response Tuning fork Neutral stimulus 4. After conditioning response Tuning fork Conditioned stimulus No salvation No conditioned response Salvation Conditioned response WILL PRESS; LEVER FOR FOOD Allachment CAREGIVER-INFANT INTERACTIONS RECIPROCITY-TURN TAKING INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY-MIRRORING • MELTZOFF AND MOORE (1977) OBSERVED THE BEGINNINGS OF INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY IN INFANTS AS YOUNG AS 2 WEEKS. AN ADULT DISPLAYED ONE OF 3 FACIAL EXPRESSIONS OR 3 DISTINCTIVE FEATURES. THE INFANTS RESPONSE WAS FILMED IN A WAY WHERE THE ADULT WAS NOT SEEN. AN ASSOCIATION WAS FOUND BETWEEN THE FACIAL EXPRESSIONS THE ADULT DID AND THE INFANT THIS WAS EVEN DEMONSTRATED IN 3 YEAR OLD INFANTS SHOWING HOW THIS BEHAVIOUR ISN'T LEARNED AND IS INNATE. EVALUATION CAN'T BE BIAS AS FILMED IN AN ANGLE WHERE INFANT CAN'T BE SEEN SHOWS HOW INTERACTIONS I SYNCHRONY HAPPENS TO YOUNG INFANTS 266 THE MOTHER MAY BE BIASED AND DO FACIAL EXPRESSIONS SHE KNOWS HER CHILD WILL DO INFANTA PULL FUNNY FACES ALL THE TIME SO IT'S DIFFICULT TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN NORMAL BEHAVIOUR AND IMITATION P WHAT HAS RESEARCH SUGGESTED ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF RECIPROCITY AND INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY? ATTACHMENT CAN BE RECOGNISED THROUGH PROXIMITY, (PHYSICALLY CLOSE) SECURE -BASE BEHAVIOUR (RETURNING) SEPARATION DISTRESS/EMOTIONAL DISTRESS WHILST AWAY FROM ATTACHMENT FIGURE. EVIDENCE THAT YOU'RE HELPFUL IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOTHER INFANT ATTACHMENT BOND, STRESS, RESPONSE, EMPATHY, LANGUAGE, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT. Memory procece (The process on how a memory is formed) 1.MEMORY ENCODING - THE FIRST STAGE OF THE MEMORY PROCESS AND IS THE PROCESS OF TRANSFORMING INFORMATION INTO A MEMORY. 2.MEMORY STORAGE- THE SECOND STAGE OF THE MEMORY PROCESS AND IT'S THE PROCESS OF MAINTAINING INFORMATION IN OUR MINDS. 3.MEMORY RETRIEVAL- THE THIRD STAGE OF THE MEMORY PROCESS AND IS THE PROCESS OF TAKING INFORMATION OUT THE MEMORY STORAGE. 2 WAYS OF MEMORY RETRIEVAL- MEMORY RECALL- CONSCIOUSLY RE ACCESSING A WHOLE MEMORY WITHOUT HAVING TO BE REMINDED ABOUT IT. MEMORY RECOGNITION - WHEN WE RE ACCESS A MEMORY AFTER BEING REMINDED OF THAT MEMORY. FOR EXAMPLE A TEACHER ASKS YOU WHAT THE CAPITAL CITY OF ENGLAND IS AND YOU KNOW YOU KNEW IT BUT YOU FORGOT. SHE THEN GIVES YOU 2 OPTIONS LONDON AND BIRMINGHAM AND YOU INSTANTLY REMEMBER THE ANSWER IS LONDON. MEMORY STORES (WHERE OUR MEMORY IS STORED). THESE MEMORY STORES VARY ON 3 DIFFERENT PROPERTIES DURATION CAPACITY AND CODING. Stages of Memory Encoding ♫ Storage Retrieval Explanations For Forgetting INTERFERENCE RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE-NEW INTERFERES WITH OLD. MULLER AND PILZECKER-RECALL WAS LESS GOOD IF THERE WAS AN INTERVENING TASK (DESCRIBING PAINTINGS). PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE- OLD INTERFERES WITH NEW. UNDERWOOD-ANALYSED MANY STUDIES. THE MORE LISTS LEARNED THE LOWER PERCENTAGE OF RECALL MCGEOCH AND MCDONALD-LEARN LIST OF WORDS+LIST OF SYNONYMS 12% RECALL. LEARN LIST OF WORDS+ LIST OF DIGITS 37% RECALL SIMILARITY MATTERS. BADDELEY AND HITCH- RUGBYS PLAYERS WHO PLAYED FEWER GAMES HAD BETTER RECALL OF TEAMS PLAYED AGAINST (LESS INTERFERENCE). EVALUATION ARTIFICAL RESEARCH WORDS AND NONSENSE SYLLABLES AND LOW MOTIVATION. DOESN'T REPRESENT EVERYDAY MEMORY. ONLY EXPLAINS SOME SITUATIONS FOR FORGETTING. WHERE 2 SETS OF STIMULI ARE QUITE SIMILAR. ACCESSIBLE NOT AVAILABLE- SUGGESTED BY SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY OF RECOGNITION MEMORY AFTER INTERFERENCE (CERASO) REAL WORLD APPLICATION- COMPETING ADVERTISEMENTS REDUCE THEIR EFFECT BECAUSE OF INTERFERENCE BETTER TO SHOW THREE IN ONE DAY (DANAHER ET AL) PRIMING AND FOURTH LTM- PERCEPTUAL REPRESENTATION SYSTEM MAY BE KIND OF IMPLICIT MEME RELATED TO PRIMING. O Retrieval failure ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE- MATERIAL PRESENT AT ENCODING IS PRESENT AT RETRIEVAL (TULVING AND THOMSON) TULVING AND PEARLSTONE - CALEGORY + WORD LEARNED. FREE PROACTINE INTERFERENCE- OLD INTERFERES WITH NEW. We lack, or fail to use, the right cues to retrieve information stored in memory. RECALL WAS 40%. CUED RECALL WAS 60% SOME CUES ARE NOT MEANINGFULLY LINKED AT ENCODING BUT ALWAYS ACTS AS CUES. CONTEXT DEPENDENT FORGETTING ABERNETHY- RECALL BEST SAME INSTRUCTOR IN THE SAME ROOM. CONTEXT DEPENDENT FORGETTING: BADELLEY AND GODDEN RECALL BEST WHEN INITIAL CONTEXT (LAND OR WATER) MIGHT RECALL ENVIRONMENT. EVALUATION RESEARCH SUPPORT EG TULVING AND PEARLSTONE (EXPERIMENT). REAL WORLD APPLICATION- REVISING, INTERVIEW. Theories of Forgetting Theories of forgetting Ona DY Interference theory Other competing memories interfere with retrieval of what we are trying to recall. Motivated forgetting There is a strong desire (motive) to forget. Decay theory Memory fades (decays) over time due to disuse VAO. Gender biac ANDROCENTRISM - PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIETY IS MALE-DOMINATED. SO OUR WORLD VIEW TENDS TO BE FOCUSED ON MEN. ALPHA BIAS EXAGGERATES THE DIFFERENCES AND RESULTS IN ONE SENDER (USUALLY WOMEN BEING DEVALUED. FOR EXAMPLE FREUDS PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY VIEWED FEMIN INTY AS FAILED MASCULINITY: WOMEN HAD PENS ENVY AND WERE MORALLY INFERIOR. BETA BIAS MINIMISES DIFERENCES. SO WOMENS NEEDS ARE IGNORED. FOR EXAMPLE. STRESS RESEARCH WAS BASED ON MALE RESPONSES AND IT WAS ASSUMED WOMEN RESPONDED IN THE SAME WAY: TAYLOR ET AL ARGUED FOR A DIFFERENT TEND- AND-BEFRIEND RESPONSE UNIVERSALITY CAN BE ACHIEVED BY ACKNOWLEDGING DIFFERENCES WITHOUT SUPERIORITY. SUCH AS ETHIC OF CARE VERSUS JUSTICE, OR FIGHT- OR-FLIGHT VERSUS TEND-AND-BEFRIEND 오 ♂ TEND TO YOUNG MOST Come on everybody BEFRIEND TURN TO SOCIAL GROUP FOR SUPPORT Evaluation FEMINIST PSYCHOLOGY - THERE ARE REAL DIFFERENCES. BUT SOCIAL STEREOTYPES CAUSE MORE DAMAGE THAN ANY REAL BIOLOGICAL DIFERENCES: BY IDENTIFYING SUCH STEREOTYPES THE BALANCE CAN BE REDRESSED. BIAS IN RESEARCH METHODS - POOR METHODOLOGY (SINGLE-SEX SAMPLES. MALE- ONLY EXPERIMENTERS) MAY DISADVANTAGE ONE GENDER. REVERSE ALPHA BIAS - CHANGE PRECONCEPTIONS WITH RESEARCH THAT OVER-VALUES WOMEN. E.G. WOMEN ARE BETTER LEARNERS (CORNWELL ET AL 1. AVOIDING A BETA BIAS - EQUAL RIGHTS MAY DISADWANTAGE WOMEN BECAUSE THEY DO HAVE DIFFERENT NEEDS. CO. EQUAL PARENTAL LEAVE IGNORES SPECIAL BIOLOGICAL DEMANDS ON WOMEN. ASSUMPTIONS NEED TO BE EXAMINED - DARWINS THEORY OF SEXUAL SELECTION HAS BEEN CHALLENGED AS ROOTED IN VICTORIAN IDEAS ABOUT FEMALE COYNESS. Bahricke 1975 THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD THE AIM OF THIS STUDY WAS TESTING PEOPLES ABILITY TO RECALL AND RECOGNISE NAMES AND FACES OVER TIME. THE METHOD WAS USING PARTICIPANTS WHO HAD GRADUATED FROM HIGH SCHOOL. THEY WERE FIRST TESTED THROUGH RECALL AND ASKED TO WRITE DOWN THE NAMES OF CLASSMATES THEY REMEMBER THEY THEN USED MEMORY RECOGNITION AND WERE SHOWN IMAGES IN A MATCHING TEST TO TEST THERE LONG TERM MEMORY ABILITY. EVALUATION THE EXPERIMENT USES EMPIRICAL DATE THAT IS QUANTITATIVE WHICH INCREASES THE EXPERIMENTS VALIDITY. DOES NOT CONTROL CONFOUNDING VARIABLES FOR EG THEY MAY HAVE REHEARSED THEIR MEMORY OVER THE YEARS. ANALYSIS PHOTO RECOGNITION IS BETTER THAN RECALL AND LONG TERM MEMORY HAS AN UNLIMITED DURATION. Ö FINDINGS -60% PARTICIPANTS WHO GRADUATED MORE THAN 15 YEARS AGO WERE ABLE TO RECALL SUCCESSFULLY. 90% WE'RE ABOUT TO REMEMBER THROUGH MEMORY RECOGNITION (ONCE THEY WERE SHOWN AN IMAGE OF CLASSMATE) AFTER 45 YEARS RECALL PERCENTAGE DROPPED BY 30%. RECOGNITION MEMORY ONLY WENT DOWN MY 10% AND WAS ON 80% SO IT SHOWS HOW LONG TERM MEMORY HAS NO LIMIT. ~ Memery Introduction what is memory? MEMORY IS THE FACULTY OF THE MIND BY WHICH DATA OR INFO RATION IS ENCODED, STORED AND RETRIEVED. IT IS THE RETENTION OF INFORMATION OVER TIME FOR THE PURPOSE OF INFLUENCING FUTURE ACTION. KEY TERMS: MEMORY TECHNIQUES : TECHNIQUES TO HELP US REMEMBER SOMETHING FOR EG. WORD ASSOCIATIONS, WORDS WITHIN WORDS, DESIGNING A STORY AND READING ALOUD. MEMORY PROCESS= MEMORY ENCODING MEMORY STORAGE MEMORY RETRIEVAL TYPES OF MEMORY: sensory register: stores information from the 5 senses = Short term memory- stores info whilst we complete a task. Long term memory- retains info for long periods of time.