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goods were made by skilled craftsmen that increased its trading power. Normans Institutions:the government/king now running the whole country (not just the Danelaw as the Vikings had!) William I had castles built (wood and later stone)to remind Saxons of who was in charge and control the surrounding countryside. He developed (note: not created!) the feudal system so that Normans were loaned the land in return for loyalty; barons, knights, and peasants all owed loyalty to the people above them - so more stability was created He decided to hold a survey to give an accurate record of the state of the land - commissioners questioned all landowners in 1086 and findings e.g. buildings and animals were written in the Domesday Book Attitudes in society: 1067-71 the Normans struggle to exercise control over the Saxons - e.g. in the Harrying of the North (1069-70), they took revenge on Saxons in the north and burned crops, destroyed seeds, killed livestock, and destroyed Saxon homes -as a warning to never rebel again). 1. 2. Economic influences The Doomsday Book recorded who owned the land, and the value of the estate, and could be used for purposes of taxation. Jewish migrants 1. institutions: the government/king Initially they had had special status because they had been invited to England by William I and were useful to the Crown. Yet prejudice grew. In 1265, the Pope let Italian bankers charge interest on loans so now Henry III and others did not have to borrow from Jewish moneylenders. Once Italian bankers migrated, he could expel Jewish people and end mob riots could end; as they were less dependent on Jews to support income, kings becameless willing to protect them. 1. In the 13th century, Jewish communities were persecuted by kings and governments e.g. 1218 - forced to wear a yellow patch; 1230 -expelled from several towns; 'blood libel' stories spread and there were many attacks e.g. in 1255, Henry III ordered the arrest of about 90 Jews and the hanging of those who protested because he believed they had been involved in a ritual killing of a boy in Lincoln; 1275- Edward I made the Statute of Jewry law banning Jews from collecting interest and those who owed money did not need to pay it back-affecting them economically; 1290- Edward I ordered all Jews to convert to Christianity or leave. 2. 2. Institution: the Church The crusades (military expeditions) against Muslims started in 1095-the Church said that Muslims were 'unbelievers' and should be persecuted for not believing in Christian teachings; as Jewish people were seen as 'unbelievers', this was like giving permission for Jews in England to be persecuted too and anti-Semitism increased e.g. on 3 September 1189, during Richard I's coronation, mobs attacked the Jewish quarter of London, killing 30 Jews, and more attacks followed over the next year, with hundreds of Jews killed. 3. Attitudes in society They were accepted for many years as their money helped business and trade to flourish... but anti-Semitism (hatred of Jewish people) grew! Jewish people could pay to shelter in royal castles in a crisis (special status due to invitation by the Crown) but charged higher interests to pay for this -causing resentment Religion Jewish families often lived in Jewries (separate parts of towns and villages), sharing beliefs and customs. They set up their kehilas (community councils), mikvehs (bath houses), kosher butchers, and synagogues. 4. They were treated with suspicion as the only non-Christian group living in England - and the Church taught that they had put Christ to death. This caused tensions between Jews and Christians, sometimes causing hostility. Low countries labourers 5. Economic influences: Initially Jewish people were accepted for lending money to businesses and trade but suffered after the 1275 Statute of Jewry above. Attitudes in society they were accepted for their skills and taught English people new techniques and helped them earn money e.g. Flemish brickmakers and Dutch brewers taught brick-making and brewing beer with hops. Economic influences their skills were accepted and they played a valuable role in helping England develop its trade and industry. Low Countries weavers 1. 1. Attitudes in society They were accepted for economic influences-but in hard times could be attacked e.g. in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, about 150 foreign weavers and merchants were murdered as people resented their special privileges from the king. Also craft guilds believed migrants were taking jobs and selling cloth at lower prices than they did-leading to hostility. Edward III let Flemish weavers set up their own guild that reached agreement with local craft guilds. 2. Economic influences Were the most successful from the Low Countries, welcomed by the king as skilled workers who made the cloth industry more profitable - in 1331, Edward III Invited them to settle and work in London. Towns like Colchester in Essex became wealthy by weaving and selling cloth. Some wealthy migrants organised cloth production as businesses. Lombardy bankers Institutions: the government / king: 1. Henry III had promised royal protection and in 1220s, important families migrated. They made a fortune (economic influences) as in return for loans and interest, they got the right to trade in wool and other goods on better terms than the English. They gave huge loans to Henry III and Edward. Edward III later stopped repaying loans from the Lombardy bankers. 2. Hansa merchants 3. 1. Institutions: the government/king Hansa merchants had a community in London called the Steelyard. They got the right to trade as merchants in 1303 from Edward I. They got royal protection and paid lower tax rates and customs tariffs than other merchants. By the mid-1400s, German merchants controlled most of the English cloth industry. 2. Attitudes in society In hard times, the English turned on immigrants e.g. during the Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and again in 1492, the English attacked the Steelyard - believing the merchants were selfish TWO-EARLY MODERN PERIOD NOTE ABOUT ATTITUDES IN SOCIETY Huguenots In hard times, the English turned on immigrants. During wars, their goods could be confiscated and sometimes they were expelled due to a worry that they would e a danger. In 1325, for example, Edward II ordered the arrest of all foreigners near the south coast when fearing aFrench invasion. Yet in general they settled well. Attitudes in society Huguenot churches (in Soho and later Spitalfields, where they had built 9 by 1700), helped them keep their separate identity, provide welfare and support, be accepted because of their church-going habits/ respectability/ and clear Protestant work ethic where hard work was valued, and helped develop a more tolerant attitude to migrants. Religion In 1550, Edward VI signed a Charter allowing the 'Church of the Strangers' to be built in London, the first Huguenot church in the country. It gave the earlier Huguenot refugees in the 1570s a place to worship. (It was rebuilt in the 17th century elsewhere). Huguenot migrants came to this church and the houses around it in the 1680s and 1690s. Economic influences Many had a range of skills and expertise that helped them work; many joined businesses of friends/relatives or set up their own. They had financial skills (e.g. managing rents, payrolls, and investments), made fancy goods (from leather, fans from feathers, and wove tapestries), manufactured soap, vinegar, glass, and paper, spinning and waving silk and wool, and metalworking and woodcarving. CASE STUDY: the Flemish weavers in Sandwich 1. Attitudes in society /economic influences Having been invited in 1561, by 1582, they constituted over half of the town's population. They were allowed to use St Peter's Church to worship. They built their own homes with Dutch features. When they became so successful than the town's original population in 1564, Lyven Symons opened a tailor's shop, he was told he could only employ Englishmen in it. The town started to worry about 'the strangers' taking jobs from the English people and restrictions were set in place. CASE STUDY: the Walloons in Canterbury 1. Economic influences Unlike in Sandwich, they developed new trades such as silk dyeing so this meant there was less jealousy from the other inhabtiants of the city about losing jobs. Attitudes in society The community had 12 'elders' who set rules for the community and kept order and worked with authorities. The community grew very quickly to 1/3 of the city's population by 1595. It was such a success that there were concerns about too many 'strangers' arriving. They had to prove to city authorities that their businesses would not compete with existing ones. They were accepted as part of society and in 1588 they helped prepare the defences against apossible Spanish invasion. - 2. CASE STUDY: the Huguenots in Spitalfields and Soho, London Finally in 1582 Elizabeth I's council agreed that they should work only in cloth and trade but they could give them permission to find other work elsewhere; more and more began to leave Sandwich. - 2. Palatines 3. 1. Institutions: the government/king: 1. Economic influences 1. Unlike in Sandwich, they developed new trades such as silk dyeing so this meant there was less jealousy from the other inhabtiants of the city about losing jobs. 2. Attitudes in society: Londoners were traditionally anti-Catholic and this, combined with propaganda about atrocities against Protestants in France, meant Huguenots were generally welcomed in London. There were minor disturbances in Spitalfields towards the end of the century when English weavers complained that Huguenots were taking work from them. 2. However, it became clear that Huguenots were willing to teach their skills to the English and were creating prosperity in the area e.g. they taught them how to weave 'shot' silk where two colours are woven together to create a shimmering appearance. The government deported around 3000 Palatines to Ireland in Sep. 1709-but they could not farm the poor-quality land, and many were hated by the Catholiclrish majority. Attitudes in society There was anger from English people who feared the Palatines would take jobs away from English people. Economic influences Jewish migrants They did not have the Huguenots' skills or family and friends established; were poor and desperate; could only work as general farm labourers; the poor harvest of 1708 in England meant extra labourers were not needed; English people stopped charitable support when food prices were high and the war with Spain was pushing up taxes so there was no money to spare. Institutions: the government/king: the government gave permission for a larger synagogue to be built in London- it could seat 400 men and 160 women. This was the Bevis Marks synagogue. The Jews and others maintained good relations with the mayor of London, presenting a dish of sweetmeats every year from 1679 to 1780. They would need help in trouble! Attitudes in society There was a good Jewish relief system -synagogues collected money. 3. 1. Africans 2. 1. 2. 1644: the Gates of Hope, a boys' school for poor Jewish boys, was founded in London. 1730: Villa Real for girls opened. After 1656, English people were more willing to accept Jews than in medieval times but there was still a lot of anti-Semitism e.g. forbidden to serve in the army / attend university/work as lawyers, and pamphlets and popular songs described them as scoundrels, thieves, and beggars. Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice (c1598) has a cruel Jewish moneylender as a character, Shylock. Economic influences Some did very well e.g. in 1657 Solomon Dormido was the first Jew to trade on the Royal Exchange but in 1700, nearly half of the nearly 1000 Jews depended on help from richer members of the community. Ashkenazi Jews from central and Eastern Europe arrived in growing numbers and settled in trading ports e.g. Liverpool as well as London; some Jews set up as dealers, selling marine stores and supplies, or they worked as dockers and warehousemen or in other capacities too. Others were more destitute and worked as pedlars selling items like lace and ribbons between towns and villages. Jobs affected income levels. Asians Irish Attitudes in society In the late 1600s, it became fashionable to have black servant, especially a child. 1. Economic influences 2. Some were independent Africans e.g. Reasonable Blackman was a silk weaver living in Southwark, London, in the 1580s and 1590s, or John Moore paid for the Freedom of the City of York in 1687- meaning he could enjoy a lot of privileges e.g. right to fish in the city's rivers, so he was wealthy. Yet some Africans were kept as slaves. Attitudes in society Indian child servants were used in much the same way as African child servants -as status symbols that indicated their employers' connections with the exotic India. THREE-1700-1900 Economic influences Migrants from the countryside to city Some sailors (lascars) settled mainly in ports (e.g. London and Liverpool); some picked up casual work. Some servants were left at arrival ports as their employers wanted English servants; others were dismissed (e.g. ayahs after the children grew up) but some were treated as respected and useful servants, especially the Indian children. 1. Economic influences: most migrants headed for Britain's cities - this put pressure on services and sometimes basic facilities broke down. People crowded into existing tenement buildings or sub-standard newly built houses (e.g. many lived without running water, waste infiltrated rivers used for drinking), diseases spread quickly (e.g. cholera and typhus were 'killer' diseases), many people were desperately poor and this put a huge strain on existing relief offered by the poor law. Relief was sometimes given while they stayed in their own homes; or, more often after 1834, inside a workhouse, where parents and children were separated, and conditions were worse than those of the poorest people living outside.) Religion Most of the Irish were Catholics; England was a Protestant country. This caused prejudice towards them. Attitudes in society: 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. Many people were prejudiced against Irish people e.g. they were suspected of being Fenians (who wanted independence for Ireland from Britain) 1. In 1867, they had unsuccessfully revolted against the British and were responsible for acts of violence against British authorities. 2. LIVERPOOL CASE STUDY: Signs saying 'No Irish Need Apply' for jobs were common and crime was often blamed on them. However, the Irish helped each other e.g. social areas for them appeared e.g. Jack Langan's dockside pub that offered advice and support for new arrivals. Jewish migration Economic influences They were mostly poor tenant farmers and labourers with few specialist skills needed in factories; many took on hard labouring work in docks, mines, and quarries. They worked as navvies, digging out canals and building railways. Work was hard and dangerous- if they were killed / injured, wives and children would be forced into poverty. By 1868, there were also 55 000 Irish soldiers in the British army. LIVERPOOL CASE STUDY Mostly took poorly paid manual labour jobs, often temporary, involving long hours, hard work and low pay; in 1881, 80% of Irish men were labourers. They worked as 'lumpers' and 'navvies'. Religion England was a Protestant country. This caused prejudice towards them. Attitudes in society About 90% of Jewish migrants from Eastern Europe settled in London (mainly in the East End) - but settled Jewish communities worried that the arrival of thousands of poor Jews could affect perceptions. Jewish leaders urged the new immigrants to learn English and adopt the English way of life while keeping their Jewish religion and rituals. Adults were taught English in evening classes, and children attended Jewish schools. -There was dislike and resentment, especially in Spitalfields and Whitechapel - which affected the hunt for Jack the Ripper in 1888, thought to have murdered multiple women (many thought the murderer was a Jew). It was because Jews were employed in sweatshops, taking lower wages, had different food and clothes, and their holy day was Saturdays so could work on Sundays when 'Christians' could not there were business concerns. Economic influences Africans Many were poor and wanted to stay in the East End (Spitalfields and Whitechapel) but this was already overcrowded E.g. in 1871 there were c. 9 inhabitants per houseand by 1901 theaverage was 14. In Whitechapel, many worked in clothing sweatshops- long hours in terrible conditions for little money, sewing cheap clothes as fast as they could, ignoring basic working conditions established by trade unions. There was unemployment in the East End already and tension grew. Institutions: the government After the Somerset case heard by Lord Mansfield in 1772, he gave his judgment that 'Slavery was never in use in this country. It... cannot be supported... and the enslaved man about whom the case was, James Somerset, was set free (he had been brought to Britain by his American master, who tracked him downafter he escaped and put him in chains on a ship to Jamaica). Although he didn't say slavery was illegal, he said it did not legally exist (meaning a law would have to be passed to make it illegal-which was unlikely). Many black Africans celebrated the judgment. Economic influences Asians: ayahs and lascars 1. Economic influences 1. During the American War of Independence, many black Africans fought forthe British and were offered freedom in return. Britain was defeated and they left for Britain - but ended up begging when finding no work. In 1786 the 'Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor' was set up to provide food and clothing for black beggars until they could find work. Later they stopped help to encourage sending them to Africa. 2. Europeans: Germans and Italians Ayahs: in 1869, the Suez Canal opened, shortening the journey time; travelling ayahs might be hired for the new ocean liner journeys and some were left stranded when not given a return ticket by employers. Many became destitute e.g. in 1855, 50-60 were found living in a run-down lodging house in London's East End. In the mid-19th century, English women set up ahostel for abandoned ayahs supported by the Christian London City Mission which tried to find them work or a passage back to India. It also hoped to convert them to Christianity from Hinduism / Islam. 1. Lascars: Some companies abandoned them in the British ports rather than them working on ships on the return journey. Some chose to stay. Many found work in ports e.g. in Liverpool. Some were destitute and died from starvation or cold. 1880s: Yemeni lascars helped build the Manchester Ship Canal. Hostels were open to help destitute lascars, and Christian missionaries worked there, hoping they would convert to Christianity. Chinese sailors also came and boarded houses took them-from the 1890s, Chinese shops and cafes became common; they had a reputation for working hard, not drinking, and looking after families. 2. Economic influences German engineers and scientists that set up small companies that did well existed e.g. Paul Reuter set up a successful news bureau. FOUR- 1900- PRESENT Hundreds set up smaller businesses e.g. butches, bakers, brewers. Italians: many worked as street musicians, some did hard, manual work that English people did not want to do e.g. laying asphalt on new roads; developed skills learned in Italy (e.g. making tiles) and making ice cream. They flourished, setting up schools and hospitals, newspapers and shops, after a shaky start (see below). Attitudes in society Italians could face some prejudice e.g. The Times in 1856 said 'we endure them simply as idle people'. WW1 - Belgians and Germans Institutions: the government The government made it clear that Belgians were expected to stay only for the war's duration and in 1918 their jobs were ended and most needed to go back. Germans, however, were classed as 'enemy aliens' after Parliament passed the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act in August 1914. Male enemy aliens had to report to a police station and produce evidence of good character and knowledge of English; if evidence was successfully produced, they could be interned on the Isle of Man (separated from wives and children) and released at the end of war. About 29 000 were deported who could not produce enough evidence. Attitudes in society Belgians who fled Germans were welcomed; charities found homes for them; more than 60 000 worked in Britain during thewar and manyset up own businesses. However, the media fuelled anti-German feelings. Examples of negative attitudes were mobs attacking and looting shops owned by Germans in Liverpool, Manchester, London and other cities; German food was taken off menus; workers went on strike in factories employing Germans. Lascars-after WW1 ended 1. WW2 - Polish servicemen and Germans Attitudes in society / economic influences When war ended in 1918, returning servicemen wanted old jobs back but many migrant workers had taken jobs at the docks. Lascars had taken merchant seamen's jobs when the latter had joined the Royal Navy and companies kept hiring them as they accepted lower wages so they were blamed for making it harder to get jobs back. Riots broke out in ports e.g. Tiger Bay, Cardiff. The National Union of Seamen encouraged white seamen to believe lascars were stealing jobs. Throughou tthe century, fears over job losses were almost always blamed on immigrants 'taking our jobs'. 1. 1. Institutions: the government 2. After war ended in 1945, Poland was controlled by the communist dictatorship of the USSR and many Poles did not want to return home. 1947: Parliament passed the Polish Resettlement Act giving Polish servicemen the right to remain in Britain (120, 000 chose to do so) and their families could join them. For Germans living in Britain, tribunals were set up by the government to decide which posed a threat to national security. Some were even victims of Nazism! In the end, only 348 men out of 35 000 were interned. Yet when Italy joined the war in 1940, the British government began mass internment of Germans and Italians, lasting for about a year, and then all were released - public opinion had turned against it (see below). Jewish children and British evacuees: Attitudes in society Most were loved but some were abused and exploited. Many Jewish children's families had died in Nazi camps. Most lived with strangers. 2. Attitudes in society The government wanted the Poles to work in British industries, especially mining- at first there was opposition from the unions but gradually the Poles won acceptance, due largely to their war service and hard work. Before long, there were Polish communities in many large industrial towns. Public opinion turned against internment - in July 1940, the SS Arandora Star carrying 1150 German and Italian internees to Canada was sunk by a German U-boat, drowning over half; events like this increased sympathy. African and Asian migrants: 1. Attitudes in society The arrival of Kenyan Asians in 1967 focused media and political attention on the so-called 'immigration problem'. That year the far-right political party, the National Front (NF), was founded to end immigration and expel migrants from Britain. MP Enoch Powell's speech of 20 April 1968 became known as the 'rivers of blood' speech - he wanted to stop immigration and felt that English people had 'found themselves strangers in their own country'. London dock workers stopped work and marched through the city in support of him. A survey found 75% of people in Britain believed there were too many ethnic minority migrants living there. Race riots - institutions: the councils / police; economic influences; attitudes in society Brixton (April 1981) - about 25% of residents were from an ethnic minority; rioters (over 3 days) were mainly second- generation young men. Long-term tensions were poor housing, high crime rate, high unemployment (about half of the young black men), and then in early April, the police started Operation Swamp 81 to target street crime, increasing the numbers of police officers in Brixton. The police used the SUS law to stop and search potential criminals (in 6 days, over 1000 in Brixton were stopped and searched, most of them black). The black community argued that they were being persecuted - the police were exempt from the 1976 Race Relations Act, banning racial discrimination. Burnley-2001 - tensions in Bradford, Oldham, and Burnley led to violence. They had large, mostly Asian, migrant communities; all three riots had the same pattern of economic hardship and racism, made worse by the BNP's presence. In June 2001 in Burnley, a fight between white and Asian drug dealers led to an attack on an Asian taxi driver; a rumour of his killing led to a group of Asians attacking the Duke of York pub and white customers fought back. Rioting continued over the weekend with hundreds involved in firebombing and assaults. Riots turned into a racist conflict. The trigger was a violent dispute between rival drug dealers but tensions had also built for years e.g. at least 40% of households depended on benefits; there was not much intermingling of races; Asians felt the town council treated white communities better than them and vice versa. Caribbean migrants: CASE STUDY - BRISTOL 1. Attitudes in society Many struggled to find homes as landlords refused to rent to black people. They rented out bomb-damaged houses for high rents. 'Colour bars' were common, people being convinced that migrants took jobs and housing from white residents. Many migrants worried about racist violence. In 1962 the West Indian Development Council (WIDC) was set up to campaign against racism and help with finding jobs, housing, and education. The Bristol Bus Boycott occurred in 1963 until the colour bar was lifted that restricted black people working for the Bristol Omnibus Company; many white people supported it. Asians in Leicester (CASE STUDY) 1. Attitudes in society As in Bristol, there was some hostility and colour bars were common e.g. in 1967 the council's education committee states schools were being 'flooded' by Indians children, many of whom 'do not speak English'. Yet some sympathised with the Asian community -students demonstrated against the colour bar and there was widespread outrage at KKK action in the city. Over 1/5 of the Ugandan Asian refugees came to Leicester and the British Asian Welfare Society and other volunteers helped them find homes and jobs. The NF targeted Leicester - there were NF marches in 1974 and 1979; and in 1976 they won 19% of the local council vote. Yet its support fell in the 1980s as many voters were shocked by its racism and violence. Unions worried that jobs would be 'lost' and many early Asian migrants were paid less than white workers, in jobs beneath their skill level