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towns were important trading centres with Europe so Vikings could grow rich. CASE STUDY: migration to York -economic opportunities: it was the largest town in north Britain and the centre of Anglo-Saxon government/trade / Church in the north. Its rivers and roads made it easier to move Quickly around Northumbria (a rich kingdom); it was connected to much of the known world, and rivers meant rich, fertile soil for farming. Religious - Vikings believed that Odin, god of war and military victory, would reward invading warriors after death Normans (1066): Change: Political desires - William of Normandy wanted the throne after Edward the Confessor's death and believed Harold Godwinson (another contender) had promised him kingship. He won the Battle of Hastings against Harold Godwinson and marched towards London, burning farms and villages and destroying crops to people surrendered. Continuity: Economic opportunities - England had a thriving wool trade by 1066 that could make landowners rich, English kings could charge taxes on trade through England's trading towns, such as London, Lincoln and York, and the king of England could raise further taxes through the Tithings and Hundreds system. He could get rich. Jewish migrants (invited in 1070) Change: Economic - Invitation by the king - William I wanted to borrow money to build stone castles and cathedrals, but the Pope forbade people from charging interest on loans; Jews could. The first Jews came from Rouen, France, and were followed by others; as towns and cities grew, more Jews migrated. Continuity: Was an economic opportunity to become commercially prosperous Low Countries labourers (14th century) Continuity: Economic opportunities - The Black Death (1348-51) had led to many deaths so there was more labouring work e.g. in farming; growth of towns meant new opportunities as they were often skilled craftsmen in roles such as tailors and shoemakers. Low Countries weavers (13/14th centuries) Continuity: Invitation by the king/ economic opportunities - Henry III was the first to invite weavers to work in 1270; if they wove high- quality cloth in England itself, he could make money off the exports! In the 1330s, more migrated as Edwardill let them set up their own guilds if English weavers were difficult and temporarily banned the export of English wool so they would have to come to use the excellent wool to carry on weaving high-quality cloth. Lombardy bankers Continuity: Invitation by the king/ economic opportunities - rich banking families began coming; with towns and cities growing, many businesses needed to borrow money and they used a loophole in the Pope's ruling that let them pay a fine for charging interest on loans, which was less than the interest they charged. 1265: the Pope allowed the charging of interest. TWO-EARLY MODERN PERIOD Overarching reasons for migration during the early modern period: . ● ● Economic opportunities (because of work / through work / bad harvests) Developing trade Developing empire Religious persecution Forced migration Economic - Invitation by localities Key context: There were wide-ranging religious, social, and political changes Religious: under Henry VIII, England 'broke from Rome' (the Catholic Church) c. 1534 and became Protestant, more securely under Elizabeth (from 1558) - so it became a place ofsafety Political: following the English Civil War (1642-9), England became a republic (1649-60), initially under Cromwell; he allowed Jews to return. After the monarchy was restored, a Catholic king, James II, was unpopular and Parliament invited the Protestant Duke William of Orange (1688) to 'invade' England and become joint monarch with his wife Mary (James' daughter). Economic: new trading links were developed that increased migration: - The East India Company (from 1600) with India - In 1660 the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa (trading with West Africa in gold, silver, and slaves - forced migration). - England's sea power grew under the Tudors, with a larger navy, and trading boats that were also used for attacking and robbing enemy ships. This was called 'privateering', rather than 'piracy', because it had some support from the monarchy due to desires of empire building. Huguenots (Protestant migrants) Change: Religious persecution / refugees -They arrived from northern France and were welcomed from the mid-16th century (Edward VI) who gave a Charter in 1550 allowing a French Protestant Church to be founded in London; the first refugees arrived after the 1572 St Bartholomew's Day Massacre; most arrived 1670-1710 (in 1681, Charles II gave them denizen status - rights like citizens), especially after, Louis XIV made it illegal for French people to be Protestants and their church services were banned and businesses attacked (in 1685, the Edict of Nantes giving more religious freedom was revoked). William III went further than Charles II - his Declaration confirmed royal support for them, wanting more Protestants and their skills. CASE STUDY: the second period of Huguenot migration was of 40 000 to 50 000; two important communities developed in Soho, London, and Spitalfields (food and housing were cheaper in Spitalfields and there was more freedom from London guilds-association of crafts people or merchants who have power over the work produced). Continuity: Economic opportunities - After 1670, many Huguenots came to join relatives and friends who had been running successful businesses in England for years. Palatine migrants (from Germany) Continuity: Economic opportunities/poor harvests-In 1709, the government passed the Foreign Protestants Naturalisation Act, allowing European Protestants to live in England with full civil rights if swearing loyalty to the Crown. Many Palatine migrants arrived (almost 12 000 Palatines and other Germans May-June) after bad harvests and wars between German states, looking for a better life. Jewish people Change: Religious persecution / refugees - In 1655, Jewish rabbi Menasseh ben Israel visited Cromwell to argue for Jews to be allowed back; there was persecution in Europe e.g. 100 000 had been massacred in Ukraine. Although Jews had been expelled from England in 1290, Cromwell's council came up with a solution: the expulsion order had been issued by royal prerogative (right) and not by Parliament, who were now largely in charge. In 1656, Jews who had settled in Aldgate were allowed to build a synagogue and more Jews arrived. They were allowed back quietly. Cromwell thought Jesus Christ would return if Jewish people were converted to Christianity - this would be easier if they were in England. Continuity: Economic opportunities - Cromwell thought Jewish people's skills could help the economy. Africans: Change: Economic developing trade / Forced migration - while some Africans arrived freely and did skilled jobs and were not slaves under the law, the start of the slave trade led to forced migration (bought from Portuguese slave traders) and also families were forced out of Spain in 1568 because they were part of the Muslim rebellion against the Catholic Spanish government; they came as refugees. Asians Change: Economic developing trade / empire and through work -as the East India Company expanded its trading activities, English traders and merchants, administrators and officials, officers and soldiers went out from England to try to make their fortunes; returning Englishmen made it possible for Indians to migrate e.g. as ayahs (nannies for their children), or as servants. • Through work with the EIC-women who got married to Englishmen working for the EIC could come back to England, or as lascars on EIC ships CASE STUDY: Sandwich and Canterbury in the 16th century Change: Economic - Invitation by localities Sandwich invited Flemish weavers (Dutch Protestant migrants first invited by Edward III) in 1561 to boost its economy -bringing a new business. 25 households arrived to set up textile workshops and over the next few months, 407 arrived. Walloons (French-speaking Protestants from the Spanish Netherlands) had fled persecution from Catholic Spanish rulers and moved to Sandwich; in 1575, Canterbury invited them as it had been a pilgrimage city but after the Reformation this had declined and there were fewer visitors and so less trade; they were allowed to invite them to 100 empty houses in thecity. They also created a successful cloth and weaving market. THREE-Early Modern Period Overarching reasons for migration from 1700s to 1900s: Economic opportunities (escaping famine /jobs/ because of work / through work) Religious persecution Economic Developing trade Developing empire Key Context Forced migration Escaping warfare More political freedoms Government changes - more freedom encouraged many migrants; others, like Jewish people, migrated to escape religious and social persecution - Parliament passed laws to be more inclusive e.g. more men could vote from 1832 (those with property or paying high rents), 1867, and 1884 (more rights for workers made industrial towns more attractive); more political freedoms attracted many European migrants, especially liberal and socialist thinkers; 1829 - Catholic Emancipation Act gave Catholics civil rights; restrictions on Jews were lifted (1830s); the slave trade was abolished (1807) and slavery in the British Empire (1833) so it became more attractive to Africans and black Americans. British Empire grew - Britain became a major economic power, attracting migrants; slavery led to forced migration. It took control of India in 1858 from the East India Company and acquired a lot of land in Africa after 1885. Industrialisation: growing towns attracted migrants with job opportunities; factories needed labour, and building projects needed workers (such as Irish navvies); attracting migrants from the countryside and Europe to work in factories, contributing to urbanisation; trade of the manufactured goods brought more migrant merchants and sailors to Britain; many workers were needed at the docks built in Liverpool, London, Cardiff, Bristol, Hull, and Glasgow Improved transport links: made travel to and around Britain easier and increased opportunities for many migrants to make homes outside of ports and major cities; by 1840, a network of roads ran from London to all major cities; by 1900 there were 22 000 miles of railway track; steam power transformed shipping, connecting Britain with ports around the world - modern ships made it easier for Asians and Africans to come, and better transport led to more jobs and moving from ports of arrival to elsewhere. Migrants in Britain Change / continuity: Economic change / new opportunities: Many British migrants moved from countryside to towns for higher wages and a better life Irish migrants Change / Continuity: Economic - new opportunities / poor harvests: there were high rents for poor land (owned by English protestants often) and bad housing; 1815 collapse in agricultural prices and population riseled to shortage of food and high food prices so more poverty; Belfast had few jobs available for Irish Catholics so jobs increased; English factories meant Irish rural industries collapsed so there was more joblessness; potato blight of 1845 and 1846 destroyed 1/3 and the whole crop respectively; food was exported by Britain so prices rose and many could not feed families or pay rent; many were evicted, c.1m died from starvation, and 2m forced to migrate to England. The scale of catastrophe was new. CASE STUDY: many migrated to Liverpool (hundreds of thousands) after the famine e.g. hoping to migrate on to America, due to jobs on ships and docks and itbeing notfar away Jewish migrants Africans Continuity / Change: Escaping persecution: Restrictions on Jewish people werel ifted and their situation improved so Britain became more attractive. 1880-1900, over 100 000 Jews arrived - escaping persecution in the Russian Empire. Some in the Jewish communities did help e.g. the Poor Jews' Temporary Shelter in London let Jewish immigrants stay for 14 days. Asians Continuity: economic developing trade / forced migration - hundreds of thousands were forced to migrate from Africa in the slave trade - mostly to colonies in the west Indies and North America, but some ended up in Britain. This continued the work of the Royal African company. Continuity: Developing empire - the British presence in India strengthened and trade increased, especially after 1858 when the British government took over control of India from the EIC. Thousands of Indians travelled to Britain - students went to English and Scottish universities (educational opportunities), Indian princes were forced out of lands by the EIC and later the British government; through work - servants with colonial families (numbers increased after 1700 as they were seen as cheaper / status symbol), and lascars from China, Malaya, India, Somalia, and Yemen were all recruited by the EIC and 'disappeared' into dockland communities to escape poor conditions. Germans and Italians Change: Escaping warfare - Italian states united into Italy (1861)and German states united into one country (1871) Continuity : economic / new opportunities - British economic strength and freedom from government interference attracted skilled people, and in Italy, changes in agriculture left money in poverty. However, agriculture and Britain was stable and prosperous Change / continuity - More (political )freedom-More freedom for German thinkers and political activists to express their views withoutfear of punishment Change - Health - Britain was a healthier place to live fo ritalian migrants due to severe outbreaks of typhus and cholera FOUR-1900s - PRESENT DAY Overarching reasons for migration from 1900s to present day: Economic opportunities (jobs / part of the EU) Escaping warfare / violence Persecution Support from the empire in war ● Key Context: Changes in Parliament: women gained the vote (1918; 1928) and legislation protected workers' rights e.g. National Minimum Wage Act 1998; the NHS was created (needing migrant nurses and doctors); legislation was passed regarding race (e.g. Race Relations Act, 1965), giving more rights; 1975-2016, Britain was part of the EU, leading to more migration. Changes in industry and economy: migration was encouraged to help Britain rebuild after WW2; aeroplanes and large turbine-powered ships became more common, making it easier for families to move longer distances so communities (rather than just individuals) of migrants became more common; in the 1980s, many businesses (e.g. coal mining) closed because of cheaper global competition (so businesses employed migrants who would work for lower wages) Changes in the British Empire: soldiers from the Empire had fought on both sides so migrant groups felt stronger connections; after countries gained independence, Britain encouraged migration as it maintained links; the British Commonwealth, set up in 1926, was renamed the Commonwealth of Nations in 1949 - it had many former colonies and encouraged links. The 1948 British Nationality Act confirmed and affirmed that all citizens of territories in the Empire / Commonwealth were British subjects and could enter Britain and stay. Migrants from the Empire (often temporary) Change: Support from the empire in war - in WW1, thousands of migrant merchant seamen served on the ships bringing food to Britain, and they served again in WW2; people from the Caribbean, Africa, and other colonies migrated to Britain to work, supporting the war effort Belgians in WW1/Poles in WW2 Change / continuity: Escaping warfare - in 1914, Germany invaded Belgium and over 250,000 Belgians fled to Britain for safety; in 1939, Poland was occupied by Germany and Russia and c. 160,000 Poles fled to Britain, around 14,000 joining the RAF. Children in WW2 Change / continuity: Escaping warfare- when war began in 1939, the government made plans for evacuating children from cities likely to be bombed. It was voluntary - and c. 800,000 were evacuated out of the cities and into the countryside. It was similar to previous escapes from warfare but a change in the evacuation of children in this manner. Change / continuity: Escaping persecution - about 60 000 Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany were accepted by the British government; leaders persuaded the British government to drop visa and passport requirements and let Jewish children entire immediately - this was known as the 'Kindertransport'; Dec 1938 - Sep 1939, 8274 children travelled to Britain without parents. The idea was that children would return to Germany after the war, with the people looking after them paying the cost of their return. Caribbean migration Change / continuity: Economic opportunities to rebuild Britain, the 'Windrush generation' (1948-73) often arrived. In 1952, the USA had put restrictions on migration. In 1956, London Transport began paying fares (to be paid back from workers' wages), making migration easier. CASE STUDY: a number arrived in Bristol, looking for jobs and helpingto rebuild. Coming to rebuild the country after war was a change. Asian migration from India / Pakistan Change / continuity: Escaping warfare - after the partition of 1947, there was religious violence between Muslims and Hindus and thousands fled to Britain. Asian Kenyans and Ugandans Change / continuity: Persecution - Asian Kenyans kept their British passports after Kenya became independent in 1963 and many could no longer work permanently there so migrated. Ugandans were given 90 days to leave by the dictator, Idi Amin, in 1972 and many chose a British passport too. The change was the restrictions set upon Asians in newly independent countries when they chose to be British passport holders. EU migration Change/continuity: Economic opportunities - European migrants could travel more freely to the UK after it joined the European Economy Community (EEC) in 1973, which became the EU. Asylum seekers Change/continuity: Escaping warfare / persecution / new opportunities - in 1951 Britain signed the UN Convention on Refugees so it became a safe place for many to come. However, when the bureaucratic procedures proved ineffective, many also were trafficked across by people smugglers. The change was Britain becoming a more welcome place for asylum - but others had come for safety before this too. Asians in Leicester (CASE STUDY): Continuity: Economic - since WW2 it was attractive, with a strong textiles and shoe industry and job opportunities and housing encouraged migrants (Punjabi Sikhs from India, families from Pakistan and Bangladesh to travel there, and in the 1960s many Gujurati and Punjabi families from former British colonies in East Africa also migrated there) - from 524 Asians in 1951 to 59,079 in 1981.