Alternative transcript:

secretion of hormones by the pituitary ● Pituitary (master) gland: produces hormones that control growth hormone production o Regulates endocrine system along with hypothalamus Think of glands as communication centers ● They send and receive hormonal messengers from all over the body Gland Pituitary Pineal Thyroid Adrenal Pancreas Ovary and testes 2E Nervous system Nervous System: body's speedy, electrochemical communication system (vs. slower ES) Central NS: brain and spinal cord Function Helps to regulate all other glands Produces melatonin (regulate sleep/wakefulness) Produces thyroxine which regulates metabolism Produces adrenaline (fight or flight response) • Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (no adrenaline) Produces insulin, helps get energy from food Produces hormones necessary for reproduction (estrogen and testosterone) ● Spinal reflex is a simple, automatic response Peripheral NS: includes all of the sensory and motor neurons ● Acronym: SAME → sensory/afferent neurons and motor/efferent neurons ● PNS made of nerves outside of CNS which transmit info between the brain and the rest of the body Carries out the orders from the central nervous system Autonomic NS: controls involuntary/automatic movements EX: heartbeat, digestion, breathing, blinking Chai 2 Sympathetic NS: fight or flight; prepares body for stressful situations Parasympathetic NS: rest and digest; calms body down after stressful situations ● Somatic NS: controls voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles ● Conveys sensory info (touch, pain, and temperature) from skin and muscles to the CNS Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles ● Nerves: "cables" containing many axons that connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs. Part of the PNS Types of Neurons ● Sensory Neurons (afferent): neurons that receive info from the sensory receptors throughout the body and send to the brain (CNS) O A for approach the brain Interneurons: CNS neurons that internal communication and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs Motor Neurons (efferent): send info from the brain to the rest of the body O E for exit the brain Peripheral nervous system 2F: Parts of the Neuron Nervous system Central Peripheral (brain and spinal cord) 9 Autonomic (controls Somatic self-regulated action (controls voluntary of internal organs movements of and glands) skeletal muscles) Sympathetic (arousing) Parasympathetic (calming) Endocrine System Hormones talk to glands Neurotransmitters can fit into the recetop sites of glands Central nervous system Chai 3 Nervous System Neurotransmitters talk to neurons Hormones can fit into the receptor sites of neurons The two systems communicate with each other Neuron: the basic building block of the nervous system ● Cell body: (aka cyton or soma) contains cytoplasm and the nucleus, which directs the production of neurotransmitters Dendrites: receives messages from other cells or from the outside world (hear, taste, touch, see, smell) and conduct impulses toward the cell body ● Axon: extension of a neuron, through which messages are transmitted to other neurons, muscles, or glands Terminal buttons: tips at the end of axons that secrete neurotransmitters when stimulated by the action potential Myelin sheath: fatty covering of the axon which speeds up conduction of the action potential ● Cell body (the cell's life- support center) 2G: Neural transmission An electrochemical process: ● Dendrites Terminal branches of axon (receive messages (form junctions with other cells) from other cells) Axon (passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands) Neuron starts negatively charged (resting potential) ● Threshold: level of stimuli is required to trigger a neural impulse Neural impulse (action potential) (electrical signal traveling down the axon) Neurotransmitters Function Acetylcholine (ACh) Chai 4 Neural impulse (action potential) is generated and the neuron becomes positively charged (depolarization) When the action potential reaches the terminal branches, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse Excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed (reuptake) back into the axon terminal and the neuron returns to negative charge (repolarization) Action potential cannot be generated after some time (refractory period) All-or-none principle: the neuron fires or it doesn't Movement (muscle action), memory, and learning Myelin sheath (covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses) Too Less Alzheimers Too Much Possibly bipolar Dopamine Serotonin Norepinephrine GABA Glutamate Endorphins Synaptic gap Stimulates the hypothalamus to synthesize Parkinson's hormones and affects alertness, attention, (tremors) and movement arousal, sleep, appetite, and emotions Alertness, arousal Inhibitory neurotransmitter; decreases likelihood of action potential Excitatory neurotransmitter; increases likelihood of action potential Similar to the opiate morphine that relieves pain and may induce feelings of pleasure Receptor sites on receiving neuron Sending neuron 2H: Drugs on Neurotransmitters Action potential Synapse Sending neuron Action potential Axon terminal Depression Depression, ADHD 1. Electrical impulses (action potentials) travel down a neuron's axon until reaching a tiny junction known as a synapse. Neurotransmitter Seizures, tremors, insomnia Receiving neuron 2. When an action potential reaches an axon terminal, it stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules. These molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. This allows electrically charged atoms to enter the receiving neuron and excite or inhibit a new action potential. Schizophrenia Anxiety Chai 5 Seizures, migraines Reuptake 3. The sending neuron normally reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules, a process called reuptake. Reuptake of excess neurotransmitters in the synapse can be inhibited by certain drugs ● Proza, an antidepressant, is an SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) ● Agonists: drugs that mimic naturally occurring neurotransmitters and generate action potential ● Heroin (and other opiates) for endorphins Nicotine for ACh Antagonists: drugs that block naturally occurring neurotransmitters and doesn't generate action potential O Botox for ACh Narcan for opiates (drug example) 21 and 2J: Brain O O O • Cerebellum: controls balance and coordination • Brainstem: responsible for automatic survival functions O Pons: controls facial expressions (P for poker face) O Medulla: controls heartbeat and breathing O Thalamus: brain's sensory control center; Receive info from all the senses (except for smell) and send it to corresponding brain regions/medulla/cerebellum that deal with it Reticular Formation (RAS): controls arousal/alertness (RAS = Rise And Shine) • Cerebral Cortex: outer layer; wrinkled (fissures) to increase available surface area • Glial Cells: "glue cells"; Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons Limbic System: doughnut-shaped (way to memorize: HAH) ● Hippocampus: sends memories to other parts of the brain for permanent storage (hippo on campus) • Amygdala: fear and anger (Aimee is mad) • Hypothalamus: 4 F's: feeding (hunger/thirst), fighting, feelings, fornication (sex) O Helps govern the endocrine system via pituitary gland Cerebral Cortex (FM SPOVTA) ● Lobes are divided by prominent fissures/folds ● Frontal Lobe: behind forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements in making plans and judgements O Motor Cortex: controls voluntary movements Parietal Lobe: receives sensory info for touch and body position o Sensory Cortex: receives messages from body parts Occipital Lobe: back of head, receive visual information O Visual Cortex: receives input from your eyes • Temporal Lobe: include the auditory areas and has a role of object recognition O Auditory Cortex: receives info from your ears Chai 6 Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Frontal lobe Thalamus Reticular formation -Pons Medulla Amygdala Hippocampus Temporal lobe Parietal lobe Brainstem Occipital lobe Amygdala: linked to emotion Left hemisphere Hippocampus: linked to memory Cerebral cortex ● Right hemisphere Limbic system Brainstem Corpus callosum: axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres Thalamus: relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex Hypothalamus: controls maintenance functions such as eating; helps govern endocrine system; linked to emotion and reward 2K and 2L: Research Pituitary: master endocrine gland Reticular formation: helps control arousal Medulla: controls heartbeat and breathing Spinal cord: pathway for neural fibers traveling to and from brain; controls simple reflexes Cerebellum: coordinates voluntary movement and balance. and supports memories of such O Area of the left frontal lobe involved in speech Wernicke's Area Carl Wernicke Association Areas Areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. They are found in all 4 lobes ● Aphasia: impairment of the ability to understand or use language ● Broca's Area Paul Broca Cerebral cortex: ultimate control and information-processing Chai 7 center DS O Area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression Right = music, art 50 Brain Hemispheres ● Corpus Callosum: major pathway between hemispheres ● Contralaterality: control of one side of your body by the other side of your brain O Left hemisphere controls the movements on the right side of the body and vice versa ● Lateralization: hemisphere specialization; because of corpus callosum, lateralization is never 100% O Left = language, logic ● CT or CAT scan MRI ● ● Phrenology (F. Gall): historically, people thought that the shape and size of your brain indicated personality characteristics Lesion (Dr. Walter Freeman): precise destruction of brain tissue (ablation) Imaging techniques that show structure Series of x-ray photos of the brain combined by a computer to show extent of a lesion creates more detailed computerized images using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves that cause emission of signals that depend upon the density of tissue Split Brain Research ● Electroencephalogram (EEG) ● Imaging techniques that show function 20 and 2R: Consciousness ● Recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface Used for sleep studies PET scan ● shows brain activity when a radioactive form of glucose enters the brain Functional MRI (fMRI) On patients that have their corpus callosum severed as a treatment for epilepsy (Sperry and Gazzangia) O Examples: Vicki Chai 8 Combines elements of PET and MRI Left half of vision from BOTH eyes goes to right hemisphere O Info sent to the right hemisphere: can NOT say what they saw, but can draw/point with left hand Right half of vision from BOTH eyes goes to left hemisphere O Info sent to the left hemisphere: can say what they saw, but can NOT point/draw with right hand 2M and 2N: Neuroplasticity Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI): can range from concussion to gunshot wound Neuroplasticity: brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience ● Increase in dendrites and synaptic connections Our brains are less plastic as we age Consciousness: awareness of ourselves and our environments Left visual field Speech Visualarea of left hemisphere Nonconscious: bodily processes (heartbeat, breathing, digestion) ● Preconscious: information not currently thinking of, but could be ● Subconscious: information that we're not consciously aware of, but know must exist due to behavior O Mere Exposure Effect: prefer stimuli we have seen over novel stimuli Right visual field Optic nerves -Optic chiasm Corpus Visualarea callosum of right hemisphere ● People ● States of Consciousness • Sleep: periodic natural, loss of consciousness ● Drug-induced: chemical substances that alter perception and mood ● Other: daydreaming, meditation, hypnosis ● Category Depressants (most are agonists) o Priming: respond more quickly/accurately to questions previously seen, even if you don't remember seeing them O Blindsight: some blind people can describe the path of a moving object accurately grab an object Unconscious (Sigmund Freud): view where unacceptable thoughts are repressed to 2P and 2Q: Drugs Narcotics Stimulants William James: stream of consciousness Sigmund Freud: unconscious (used hypnosis to access it) O Dreams show unconscious thoughts and stories Psychoactive Drug: a chemical that can pass through the blood-brain barrier to alter perception, thinking, behavior, and mood ● Agonists: mimic neurotransmitters (ex: nicotine) O Increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire Antagonists: block neurotransmitters (ex: heroine) O Way of remembering: antagonists in books are bad and block things Hallucinogens Examples Alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics, opioids (agonists for endorphins like heroin and morphine) Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine LSD, THC (marijuana), MDMA (ecstasy) Psychological Effects Decrease neural activity, memory, judgement, anxiety Increase feeling of euphoria Increase neural activity, mood, alertness Distort perceptions ● Dependence: need (physical or psychological) that can lead to withdrawal without the drug Addiction: craving despite adverse consequences (lose job, relationships, etc) and withdrawal Chai 9 Physical Effects Decrease bodily functions, motor skills Depress the CNS, relieve pain Increase bodily functions, endurance, energy Evoke sensory images Drug effect Big effect Response to- first exposure 76 After repeated exposure, more drug is needed to produce same effect ● 2S: Sleep and Dreams Tolerance: diminishing effects with regular use O Hallucinogens have reverse effect Withdrawal: discomfort that follow discontinuing use ● • Sleep: periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness ● REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep: "paradoxical sleep" where muscles are generally relaxed, but brain is very active REM Rebound: we are quicker to enter REM when prohibited from REM sleep (a) (b) Sleep stages 1 2 3 4 Awake REM Stage 4 in the night. Hours asleep- Dream Theories REM periods increase as night progresses. REM REM REM Minutes of 25 Stage 4 and REM sleep 20 15 10 5 0 Increasing REM Decreasing Stage 4 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Hours asleep Sleep Theories ● Circadian rhythm: the biological clock; 25-hour cycle (supported by jet lag) Biological rhythms: periodic physiological fluctuations ● Restorative function: supported by effects of sleep deprivation Freudian: dreams show unconscious thoughts and stories Chai 10 ● Information processing: cognitive theory that dreams allow memories to form Activation synthesis: biological theory that the frontal lobe tries to make sense of neural impulses from the brain stem Lucid dreaming: knowing that you are dreaming and can control what's happening Sleep Disorders ● Insomnia: persistent problems in falling/staying asleep, loud snoring; most common sleep disorder ● Narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleep attacks (dog video) directly fall into REM O Controlled with stimulants or an antidepressant ● ● Brain Waves (measured by EEG) ● ● ● ● Night terrors: sudden arousal with fear and somnambulism (sleep walking) during stage 3 (usually in children) Sleep apnea: stop breathing temporarily and leads to momentary awakening O Treatment: respiration machine Beta waves: awake and alert Chai 11 Alpha waves: awake and relaxed Theta waves: stages 1 and 2 Delta waves: stage 3; large, slow waves of deep sleep; important for replenishing body's chemical supplies, fortifying immune system; sleepwalking Sleep onset: stage between being awake and sleeping; mild hallucinations Hi everyone :) You'll do great