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(easily noticeable) for us to learn to avoid it OPERANT CONDITIONING • Superstitious Behavior: behavior that is believed to bring good (reinforcement) or bad (punishment) luck 4E: Biological Constraints Chai 2 • Learned Helplessness: passive resignation o Not reinforced to try o Seligman: people learn to view themselves as unable to control controllable events • Garcia and Koelling: demonstrated that rats more readily learned certain associations than others o Linked loud noises with shock seemed to be adaptive o Unusual tasting water with nausea seemed to be adaptive John Garcia: learned taste aversions ● Classical conditioning explains how we are biologically predisposed to quickly learn to associate eating/drinking something and getting sick. Biologically prepared to make certain associations more quickly than others, especially those that increase our chances at survival O EX: Loud noise (CS) → Shock (UCS) → Learned response = fear O EX: Sweet water (CS) → Nausea (UCS) → Learned response = avoid water O Biological Constraints: inborn predisposition that make certain behaviors easily learned (taste aversions/fear of snakes) and other behaviors difficult to learn (can't teach animals certain behaviors) ● Instinctive drift: once learned, will go quickly back to "natural" behavior EX: You can't make a rabbit learn to walk on hind legs instead of naturally on their 4 legs 4F: Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning: type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events ● Unconditional Stimulus (US): stimulus that automatically/naturally triggers a response O EX: food, blast of air, loud noise Unconditional Response (UR): unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditional stimulus O EX: salvation at the smell of food, eye blinks at the blast of air, flinch at noise ● ● ● ● Chai 3 Neural Stimulus (NS): does not normally elicit a response or reflex action by itself NS and CS are ALWAYS the same O O EX: a color, a sound, a furry object Conditioning Stimulus (CS): originally irrelevant stimulus that did not trigger a response, but then after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a response o Usually the neural stimulus Conditional Response (CR): learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus O UCR and CR are TYPICALLY the same Acquisition: the initial stage of classical conditioning O Phase where you associate a neural stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus ● Extinction: diminishing of the CR when the CS no longer signals the US O EX: no longer salivate if the bell rings if food is never given ● Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance, after a resting period, of an extinguished CR O Suggests that extinction was suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it ● Stimulus Generalization: tendency to respond to a stimuli similar to the CS O EX: salivation at a similar sound to the bell (chime, guitar, etc) O Being afraid of donkeys if you're afraid of horses Stimulus Discrimination: the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and another stimulus that doesn't sign a unconditional stimulus O Only salivate at a bell and not at other sounds Higher Order (Second-Order) Conditioning: a new neutral stimulus can become a new conditioned stimulus O EX: dog salivates at bell, bell paired repeatedly with a flash of light (NS), now dog salivates at light alone (becomes CS) 4G: Classical vs Operant Classical Conditioning: Pavlov, Garcia, Watson O Learning through association of two stimuli Operant Conditioning: Skinner O Learning through association of behavior and consequence O Reinforcement → behavior increases O Punishment →→ behavior decreases Both are based on Thorndike's Law of Effect (puzzle box) ● Contingencies: relationships between two stimuli ● 4H: Operant Conditioning *Think of positive reinforcement as ADDING stimulus and negative reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something bad O Rescoria argued that we think about that relationship ● Positive Reinforcement: positive stimulus added (increases behavior) O EX: study →→ getting good grades →will study more ● ● Negative Reinforcement: aversive stimulus removed (increases behavior) O Study → don't have to do rewrites → will study less ■ Negative reinforcement is a good thing Escape learning: terminate aversive stimulus (put on seat belt to stop the warning sound) O Avoidance learning: avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether (clean your room so you never have to hear your mom yell in the first place) O Positive Punishment: aversive stimulus added (decreases behavior) O Get bad grade →→ have to do more chores → don't get bad grade again Chai 4 Negative Punishment: positive stimulus removed (decreases behavior) O Get bad grade → phone gets taken away → don't get bad grade anymore O Also known as omission training O Fines are negative punishments (money (good) is taken away) Punishment is most effective when it IMMEDIATELY follows undesired behavior 41: Influencing Learning Practice ● ● Scheduled Reinforcement Shaping: operant conditioning procedure in which reinforced behavior guide behaviors toward closer approximations of a desired goal (mold a single behavior) O EX: "Hot/Cold game" → guiding to the desired location Chaining: link together separate behaviors in a more complex activity O Chicken chaining: climb up, knock of bottle, cross a beam, climb down ● Fixed (set) Variable (varying/unp redictable) Interval: amount of time Set amount of time (weekly paycheck) Varying amount of time (pop quiz) Other Aspects of Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer satisfies biological needs O EX: food, water, sleep Secondary Reinforcer learned that they are good O EX: grades, money, stickers Chai 5 Ratio: number of behaviors Set number of behaviors (piecework pay) Varying number of behavior (gambling, hitting a ball 30% of the time, grading 10 tests per hour) ● Continuous Reinforcement: reinforce the behavior every time it occurs ● Partial Reinforcement: see schedules of reinforcement above O Slower acquisition; but more resistant to extinction Motivation ● Intrinsic Motivation: desire to do something for own sake and effectiveness O Read for your own Extrinsic Motivation: desired perform a behavior due to rewards/punishments Overjustification Effect: Effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as motivation for performing the task