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English Professor (1632-1704): -viewed the mind, at birth, as the tabula rosa (the blank slate) -it would be filled by experience -knowledge is gained through learning and experience -downplayed influence of genetics and innate abilities Franz Gall Austrian Physiologist (1758-1828): -developed a, now discredited, branch of science called "Phrenology" -basically stated that the unique contours and size of the skull indicated personality traits, intelligence and susceptibility to mental disorders -phrenology chart -led to an understanding that specific brain regions coordinate specific mental processes and behaviors •Charles Darwin English Naturalist (1809-1882): -developed the Theory of Natural Selection -genetically inherited anatomical variations exist within a species -an adaptation is an anatomical variation that can make an organism better suited for survival -genes for adaptive features are successfully passed onto future generations -these features can become a "permanent" part of that species anatomy -this led to sociobiological theory -this states that genetically heritable thoughts and behaviors that were adaptive at an earlier stage of evolution, remain part of human genetic makeup (ex: looking in the same direction) Part 2 The Historical Background of Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) (Introspection): -German psychologist -"The Father of Modern Psychology" -(1879) establishes first psychological laboratory (University of Leipzig, Germany -Wundt's research subjects were exposed to sensory stimuli (lights, tactile sensations, etc) -subjects would verbally describe their internal perceptions of these stimuli -reaction times to sensory stimuli were also measured and recorded -Wundt was the first to apply data collection to psychology (psychology was developing into science by controlling experiments and collecting data) -called his technique "introspection" -the process of objectively examining and measuring one's own mental processes -have the person describe the thought process steps •Edward Titchener (1867-1927): -english psychologist -studied under Wundt -(1892): Established psychological laboratory at Cornell University (first in the United States) -developed structuralism -mental processes should be broken down into smallest units for more effective study -sought to find the "atoms of the mind" -problem was that you can't break down thought, only can break down the brain William James (1842-1910) (functionalism): -American psychologist -(1890) published the first Psychology Textbook, "The Principles of Psychology" -added credibility to the emergence of psychology -psychology could be taught -psychology could be researched further and/or challenged -developed functionlaism view of psychology -psychology should focus on the purpose of mental processes, how they help in adaptation to the environment and survival •G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) -American psychologist -founder and first president of the American Psychological Association (APA) -organization that oversees psychological study in the United States Part 3 The Approaches to Psychology: -the varying perspectives on best way to study behavior and mental processes •Psychoanalytic /Psychodynamic Approach -developed by Sigmend Freud (1856-1939) -Freudians psychoanalysis uprooted the unconscious mind -socially unacceptable impulses and urges (that people are mostly unaware of) exist within the mind -these impulses exist and are active starting at birth -behaviors, thoughts, and personality are shaped by efforts to restrain and/or satisfy these urges -Freudians psychoanalytic concepts could not be observed/quantified/tested -later rejected by more scientific psychologists (because there was no observable data) -influenced the development of other approaches •Behavioral Approach -developed by John Watson -(1913); published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It to outline the goals of the behavioral approach -Behavioral Approach -for psychology to focus on behavior, because that is observable and can be quantified (Watson thought behavioral approach was the best way to study psychology) -John Watson also wanted to establish that humans learn their behaviors in the exact way that animals do -John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the "Little Albert" Experiment (1920) to demonstrate the determinants of behaviour -behaviors are learned through experience; the approach is also known as the learning perspective Humanism -developed by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) -"The Father of Humanistic Psychology" -humanism was described as "the third force of psychology" -it was developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behavioral approach -Abrham Maslow believed we are all inherently driven toward self-actualization -self actualization = we are all driven to certain talents, we are all called to inherently reach that potential Part 4 The Approaches to Psychology: •Biological Approach (Biopsychology) -focuses on the link between brain, nervous system, hormones, genetics etc. and behavior/mental processes •Socio-cultural Approach -focuses societal and cultural factors that shape behaviors and mental processes -influences of nationality, religious beliefs, gender roles, race and cultural traditions •Cognitive Approach -focus mental processes; processes that cannot be directly observed -examples would include: how to retrieve or access memories, problem-solving, language comprehension, decision making etc. •Evolutionary (Sociobiological) Perspective -behaviors/mental process, that were adaptive at earlier stage of human evolution, are part of inherited genetic make-up •The Eclectic Approach -the use of multiple approaches to explain the cause of a thought or behavior -useful because many complex forces shape any one behavior or thought -think of all the factors that influence a child as they learn how to read -how many languages are in the household -how parents pronounce the words -is there a neurological learning disability present? -resources at school socio-cultural -cant focus - cognitive -glasses (can't see) = biological -parents influence = behavioral •Seven different psychologists, each one representing the seven approaches to psychology observe a person behaving very socially during a party. •Describe how each psychologist would either attempt to explain what they were observing or what they would focus on during their observation. -Approaches to Psychology: -Behaviorism - if the person is outgoing, this person learned how to be outgoing, would study observable behaviors (eye contact, where their hands go) -Psychoanalytic- unconscious urge to be social, suppressing urges to be aggressive -Humanism- exercised their self actualization, can this person get a job in communication -Sociobiological- What role does brain activity have in being friendly, or any of these situations? -Socio-cultural- What role does religion, gender, and culture have on being friendly? -Cognitive- What are the thought processes of being friendly? The person might be talking to everyone so he might not be able to focus. -Evolutionary- did they pick up any evolutionary traits that would help them in a social setting? •Nature vs. Nurture Debate -two conflicting views on the determinants of behavior and mental processes -Nature-behavior results from genetically inherited brain structure/chemistry and/or brain activity shaped by evolution -Nurture- behaviors are learned through societal and familial experiences -Nature vs. Nurture debate argues over the question: -Are you born or do you learn to become -violent, smart, addicts, athletic -The Diathesis-Stress Model -both nature and nurture interact to cause behaviors, mental processes, mental illness, personality, etc. -Diathesis- a biological or genetic predisposition for a personality trait, the development of an illness etc. may exist -Stress- an environmental factor must be present to trigger that disposition •Apply the diathesis-stress model to the development of... -Depression: -(Diathesis)- genetically inherited brain chemical imbalance -(Stress)- unexpected death of a family member triggers episode of depression -Athleticism: -(Diathesis)- genetically inherited rapid reflexes, muscle strength, bone structure, hand eye coordination -(Stress)- parents encouraged sports at young a age; quality coaches taught advanced skills and techniques Part 5 The Domains of Psychology: -the various applications of psychology •Clinical Psychology: -focuses on the identification, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders and issues •Counseling Psychology: -addresses the emotional, social, work, school, stress-related and physical health concerns people may have -seeks to improve a person's sense of well-being, alleviate feelings of distress and resolve crisis •Educational Psychology: -studies how people are capable of learning in educational settings -evaluates the effectiveness of educational methods •Industrial-organizational Psychology: -studies employees, the workplace environment, and organizational structure -tasked with findings out how to make an organization more productive and efficient •Psychometric Psychology: -branch of psychology which focuses measurement -measurement of a person's attributes such as knowledge, skills, problem-solving ability •Positive Pscyhology: -developed as a reaction to psychology's focus on diagnosis and treatment of mental illness -encourages the scientific study of positive emotions (hope, satisfaction,gratitude, etc.) -seeks to apply to studies toward improving quality of life Part 6: The Scientific Foundations of Psychology- Research Methods: -the various scientific methods, used by psychologists, to study behaviors and mental processes •Case Study Method -in depth observation and detailed documentation of an individual's (or a small group of related people's) behavior/mental condition -often focuses on people with rare characteristics, illnesses, etc -example: 1957 HM Case Study -Strengths of a Case Study: -focuses on one subject allows for in depth observations and documentation -case studies inspire studies and investigations -Limitations of the Case Study: -findings cannot be used to make generalizations about people in larger groups -Case Study Method and Naturalistic Observation: -a procedure used to make observations, of a subject, during a case study -subjects are observed in the environments they routinely function within (school, workplace, etc.) •What steps should the observer take when conducting naturalistic observations? -limit interactions with subject, limit changes made to subject's environment -can lead to the Observer (Hawthrone) Effect -a research subject's behavior may change if they are aware of observation or their environment is altered by the research -Correlation Studies: -studies that seek to identify the relationship between two quantifiable variables -to determine if amounts of these two variables increase or decrease together -examples: -The relationship between brain mass and IQ score. (H) -As the brain increases in mass, so does the IQ score. -The relationship between the time spent with friends and happiness ratings. (H)-As time spent with friends increases, so does happiness. -Correlation Coefficients -a statistic that indicates where two variables are positively or negatively correlated and indicates the strength of a correlation Part 7 Experiments: -in a strong correlation: as one variable inc/dec; the other frequency inc/dec as well -in a weak correlation; as one variable inc/dec; the other frequently inc/dec along with it -a correlation coefficient is represented by a "r" and ranges from 0 to 1 -Strengths of Correlation Studies: -organizes/summaries large amounts of data -trends in data are easily identified -Limitations of Correlation Studies: -"correlations do not imply causation" -does not mean its a direct effect (happiness is not caused by spending time with friends) -results are susceptible to the illusory correlation 2) Hypothesis: -incorrect assumptions that correlated variable CAUSE changes in each other -example: correlation between amount of ice cream sold and number of drownings in the U.S. is +0.84 -in an experiment, a variable (an item being studied) is changed, altered in some way to determine its effect on another variable 1) The Key Variables: -the cognitive or behavioral elements, the researchers believe have a cause and effect relationship -the researcher's expectation of ho the key variables are related; which variable they believe will affect the other 3) Operational Definition ("operationalized"): -researchers must sometimes study variables that seem vague or very general, the operational definition is the precise way the key variables will be defined and measured during the course of an experiment 4) Independent Variable (IV): -is the key variable that the researcher changes (increases, decreases, adds, removes, etc.) in some way, to observe the effects it will have on the other variable -variable that is being altered or changed -may be multiple independent variables in a study 5) Dependent Variable (DV): -the variable which is then affected by the changes made to the I.V.; it is the variable which the researcher measures 6) Confounding Variables: -in order for experimental results to be considered valid, changes in D.V. should ONLY result from changes made to the I.V. If any other factor may have caused a change in the DV, a confounding variable (an uncontrolled variable that alters experimental results) is said to exist and the validity of the experiment may be questioned 7) An Experiment's Location: -Lab experiments are conducted in a controlled environment -Field experiments are conducted in an actual "real world" environments (similar to those naturalistic observations would be conducted in) -Strengths of Lab Experiments: -the researchers has greater control over environmental conditions -Weakness of Lab Experiments: -the lack of authenticity in lab setting -contributes to the observer effect (when the person being experimented n knows and this can change the experiment) 8) Group of Subjects: -Experimental Group: -the group of subjects tested with changes made to the independent variable -because an experiment can have more than one IV, there can be multiple experimental groups -Control Group: -these subjects are not involved in IV conditions, but only have the measurements, related to the DV taken -a control group is needed because they provide baseline data that experimental group results can be compared to 9) Random Assignment: -chance (coin flips; random number generator) is used to determine which group (experiment group, control group) a subject will be part of -random assignments are crucial because certain confounding are beyond a researcher's control -helps these uncontrollable confounding variables to be evenly dispersed across all experimental or controlled groups -helps reduce experimental bias: -occurs when a researcher, knowingly or unknowingly, influences experimental conditions to obtain a particular outcome (a researcher may place certain participants, in a certain group, to influence the results 10) Replication: -the duplication of an experiment, using new subjects -Why is Replication conducted? -if the results of a study are replicated, the findings can be reliably generalized to larger groups of people -repeated results assure they did not occur by chance or caused by an unknown confounding variable -Interpreting Research Results: -Confirmation Bias: -tendency to seek out information that supports one's beliefs while ignoring information that refuses it -in research; the tendency of a researcher to focus upon results that supports a hypothesis and ignore data that refuses it -Inferential Statistics: -stats that represent the confidence a researcher can have, when generalizing their study results to a larger population -researchers look for "statistically significant" results in their studies -results that show that the conditions of an experiment caused its results and not chance -statistical hypothesis tests are performed, by researchers, to establish the statistical significance of their results -both of these statistical hypothesis tests produce a "p value" -an inferential stat that represent the probability an experimental result occurred by chance -typically psychology research sets the p value standard at p is less than 0.5 in other words, there is less than 5% chance the results, accrued by chance Part 8 Placebo Effect: -studies designed to test drugs or treatments by using a drug/treatment that appears to be real, but contains no active ingredients. • Double Blind Placebo Study -used in placebo studies designed to test a drug's efficacy. -both subjects and researchers collecting data are unaware (blind to) who receives the real and placebo treatments -subjects cannot be aware if they are receiving a placebo -helps to control experimental bias •Longitudinal and Cross Sectional Studies -research method often used by psychologist that study development Longitudinal Studies: -subjects are observed/ tested then re-observed or retested at a later point in time; changes in observations and results are noted and compared -What are some of the difficulties associated with longitudinal studies? -time consuming -subject mortality can occur; the loss of research subjects due to death, relocation, and loss of interest, etc. Cross Sectional Studies: -several groups of subjects, each representing the different age groups the researcher is studying are studied simultaneously -less time consuming than longitudinal studies -What are some of the difficulties associated with cross-sectional research? -differences in age group maybe influenced by generation-specific cultural factors and not human development Twin Adoption Studies: -subjects are monozygotic (identical) or dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised in different homes -study focuses on a trait, ability or condition's heritability -whether the trait, ability or condition is influenced more by genetic factors or environmental factors -if many sets of twins share a trait, that trait may be influenced more by genetics (trait has high heritability) -if many sets of twins display differences in that trait; it may be influenced by more by environment and learning (trait has low inheritability) -a trait's heritability is often displayed statistically; on a scale of 0 to 1 -states closer to 1 indicate high heritability -states closer to 0 low inheritability