Cognition is the mental process involved with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Our brains filter information into concepts, or categories, that help us understand what things are. Concepts can be objects, emotions, and/or people.
Two Types of Concepts
Formal Concepts
Formal concepts have clearly defined characteristics or agreed upon rules of what is included in the concept. Examples of formal concepts include a triangle, elements on the periodic table, and dogs.
Natural Concepts
Natural concepts do not have clearly defined characteristics or agreed upon rules of what is included in the concept. Examples of natural concepts include a chair, anger, and food.
Both types of concepts have prototypes, which are mental images or "best examples" of a concept. Prototypes are helpful for cognition as they help us sort items into categories by quickly matching new information with the prototype. However, prototypes can also be harmful for cognition as they can lead to discrimination if new information does not match the prototype. Exemplars are any examples of an item in an overarching concept.
What is a problem?
A problem is a situation in which a person has a goal that is not yet accomplished. Problem spaces are all of the possible configurations of steps towards solving a problem. Problem solving can involve the use of algorithms, which are a set of steps, or heuristics, which are mental shortcuts to solve problems. Fixation is the inability to see problems from a new perspective.
Algorithms will guarantee an answer, but it will take longer to reach. Hill-climbing is an algorithm that requires the problem solver to take small steps and evaluate if the step gets closer to the solution. Working Backward is an algorithm that starts with the solution and takes steps backward to determine the steps needed to reach the solution.
Heuristics
Heuristics will not guarantee an answer, but it will be faster than using an algorithm. Representative Heuristic involves estimating the likelihood of an event or creating a judgment based on how closely they match a prototype. Availability Heuristic is when we estimate the likelihood of an event based on how much available information you have.
Our previous experiences have an impact on our decision making and problem solving. There are several obstacles that can lead to issues with problem solving and influence the decisions that we make.
Confirmation Bias and Belief Perseverance
Confirmation Bias is a tendency to search for information that supports what we already believe and ignore information that does not match those beliefs. An example of this is how stereotypes are formed. On the other hand, Belief perseverance is when we cling to our initial belief even when given evidence to the contrary.
Heuristics and Overconfidence
Heuristics can also be a problem solving obstacle in some cases. Overconfidence is the tendency to overestimate how accurate our beliefs and judgments are.
Beliefs and Influence
Cognitive Dissonance happens when our beliefs do not match our actions. This leads to individuals creating excuses to relieve their feelings and discomfort. Framing, or the way something is presented or worded, can change our judgments and decisions.
Fundamental Attribution Errors are the tendency for people to focus on personality-based explanations for behavior and ignore situational explanations. Self-Serving Bias is the tendency to claim credit for positive outcomes but blame external and situational factors for negative outcomes. False Consensus happens when we believe that our beliefs, idealism, and attributes are more common than they actually are.
Biases and Behavior
Hindsight Bias occurs when someone overestimates their ability to foresee an outcome to an event after they have already learned the outcome. Herd Behavior happens when individuals in a group act collectively without any specific instruction, also known as mob mentality. Learned Helplessness occurs when someone continuously faces a negative situation and stops trying to change their circumstances even if they can do so. Functional Fixedness is a bias that impacts a person's creativity, causing an inability to use an object for more than its traditional use.
History of Biological Psychology
The study of the mind in the brain dates back to ancient times, with Hippocrates being the first to correctly locate the mind in the brain. Franz Gall, a German physician in the 1800s, proposed the study of Phrenology, which involved studying bumps on the skull in order to learn about someone's mental abilities and character traits. This succeeded in focusing attention on the localization of function, the idea that various regions of the brain have particular functions.
Modern Biological Psychology
Biological Psychology is the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
In conclusion, cognitive dissonance theory was proposed by Leon Festinger in 1957. His theory suggests that when individuals have conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors, they experience a feeling of discomfort. This often leads them to try to reduce this dissonance by altering their beliefs or behaviors, seeking out new information, or minimizing the importance of the conflict. Examples of cognitive dissonance can be found in various aspects of human behavior, including relationships, decision-making, and problem-solving. By understanding how cognitive dissonance affects us, we can work to reduce its impact and make more informed, rational decisions.
