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is no relationship between the two variables. It will end up as a scatterplot. • Ex: There is no relationship between the amount of tea drunk and level of intelligence. O 00 O Weight (in pounds) O Theories/Approaches: Humorism (4 theories): First heard of by Hippocrates, Humorism is the belief that the body is influenced by four fluids produced by organs in the body. The theories are referenced by the fluids in the body that represent health, disease, temperament, and personality. Each humor would increase/decrease depending on many factors-- such as what you eat, the time of year/day, the temperature, and your gender. If one had an excess or insufficient amount of a humor, it would lead to an imbalance. Black bile (Melancholic, Earth): Quiet, unsociable, reserved • Yellow bile (Choleric, Fire): Optimistic, cheerful ● Blood (Sanguine, Air): Courageous, helpful, and lively • Phlegm (Phlegmatic, Water): Reliable, patient, thoughtful Empiricism: The view that all concepts originate in experience, that all concepts are about or applicable to things that can be experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable by only through experience. Research should be based on what people naturally observe. Structuralism: Introduced by Edward Bradford Titchener. An early school structure of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind. What are the parts/structures of conscious experience? Also looks at introspection. Structuralism is studying the mind by trying to look at what it's made of; the issue with this theory was with the research methods used, one of them being introspection. Introspection: Looking inward; to examine one's own thoughts and emotions. Examine one's own conscious thoughts/feelings when exposed to a given stimuli. The gist of it was asking a person to observe themselves, but a person cannot actively pay attention to more than one thing at a time; it's been proven multiple times in psychology. Functionalism: A school of psychology that focuses on how our mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. How does our consciousness help us function in the world? Functionalism is an attempt to study what the mind does and its function. The mind-like any trait-serves a function, just like how polar bear's fur serves a function. What function does forgetting or getting distracted serve? There are traces of the theory of evolution in here. Tabula Rasa: The mind is a blank slate. Humanism: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers created this theory. All humans are good, and every single individual is unique. Everyone moves towards growth. Problems arise when needs are not met. We ALL strive to reach self-actualization. Ideal Self vs. Real Self, and unconditional positive regard (acceptance) Behaviorism: Humans are born as a blank slate. Everything is learned through experience. Reinforcement (rewarding) and punishment shapes behavior. Emphasis on observable behavior only. (big names are Skinner, Pavlov, and Watson.) Psychodynamic Approach: This is one of the oldest approaches that is still used today. A lot of psychologists don't like the psychodynamic approach. Originally created by Sigmund Freud, this approach was originally known as the psychoanalytic theory, and this was psychology for decades. • Strength: You can't really prove this theory wrong due to the fact that you can't prove something (such as the unconscious mind) doesn't exist; we all have seemingly random urges and thoughts that come from somewhere. • Limitation: Although, this theory isn't very scientific, as it is trying to study something that is hidden, which makes it difficult to apply factual and logical research in. It's already difficult to study the mind. • Idea of Illness: Unconscious desires, fears, and impulses cause conflict with what society says is good or proper. • Approach to Treatment: Find a way to understand and work with those unconscious urges. Behavioralism/Behavioral Approach: It almost came about as a rejection of the psychodynamic approach; instead of examining a possible non-existent unconscious, behaviorism looks at things that can be recorded and observed, such as reflexes and behaviors. Behavioralism was accidentally started by Ivan Pavlov (the creator of classical conditioning). He was studying digestion in dogs and discovered that dogs would salivate at other things besides food if that thing was routinely presented before food. They learned a new trigger for reflex; this was classical conditioning. There are two types of behavioral approaches: classical and operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner) • Classical Conditioning Strength: Reflexes and triggers (stimuli) can be measured and observed. ● Classical Conditioning Limitation: Creativity and thoughts aren't simple reflexes that can be trained. • Classical Conditioning Idea of Illness: Unhelpful associations have been made between certain stimuli and certain reflexes. • Classical Conditioning Approach to Treatment: Disconnect the harmful associations and learn appropriate associations between stimuli and reflexes. • Operant Conditioning Strength: Behaviors can be measured; punishments and rewards also have a measurable effect on behavior. • Operant Conditioning Limitation: People are more complex than rewards and punishments. Selfless acts of love don't seem to fit into this approach. • Operant Conditioning Idea of Illness: People seek the wrong rewards or are trapped in a maladaptive system of rewards and punishments. • Operant Conditioning Approach to Treatment: Implement a different system of rewards and punishments to change behavior to what is considered healthy and good. Cognitive Approach: This focuses on thoughts. Thoughts are difficult and are almost impossible to study, but thoughts are what define people and make up people's identities. The issue is that many of our thought processes are flawed and based on shortcuts, emotions, and limited experience. • Strength: This is a flexible theory that allows for differences between people and the complexity of thought. • Limitation: Thoughts are difficult and are impossible to observe and study. So making a science or treatment plan requires people to reflect on and report their own thoughts, which is flawed. • Idea of Illness: Maladaptive thought parents and mental habits prevent a person from thinking beneficial thoughts. • Approach to Treatment: Recognizing harmful or defeatist thought patterns and changing those to patterns that are healthy and beneficial. Biological Approach: What the brain does. Or rather-what the body does- since our thoughts and feelings are connected to all of our bodily systems. You can't have a thought or emotion without the brain doing something. That "something" is sending and receiving chemical signals to different parts of itself. • Strength: This is a scientific theory; we can do brain scans and measure whether certain medicines have certain effects. • Limitation: The theory is too simplistic. Right now, it's way too presumptuous to say that biological science knows what love or creativity is based on what the brain does. • Idea of Illness: Illness is a problem with chemical or electrical processes, or it's a problem with an abnormal structure. • Approach to Treatment: Change the chemical or electrical processes through medicine, electrical-based treatments, or even surgery. Humanistic Approach: It doesn't necessarily focus on what's wrong with people, but it focuses on how people are unique and special. It's an optimistic and positive approach that attempts to look at the strengths of each person. It is a rejection of the pessimistic idea that your unconscious is always in conflict with what society says and a rejection of the idea that people should be trained with rewards and punishments. The humanistic approach focuses on free will; bad behavior, for example, must be taken in the context of the person's whole life. • Strength: This is a positive theory that allows and encourages differences between people. It believes and promotes growth and development. • Limitation: This theory is not based on science. One cannot observe the untapped potential of an individual • Idea of Illness: The goodness of strengths of the person is not being recognized or is prevented from blooming. • Approach to Treatment: Remove the barriers to a person's growth such as emotional distress and/or lack of skills, and they will improve. Sociocultural Approach: We all come from different backgrounds; specifically microcultures. • Strength: This is a somewhat measurable approach; we can measure social media interaction, which books are bought, and who watches what show. This works well when talking about average group behavior and thoughts. The average teen doesn't like long videos. • Limitation: It's difficult to apply large sociocultural to an individual; doing so promotes stereotyping. Culture itself is also hard to measure. • Idea of Illness: The idea that a person is in conflict with certain aspects of society, school rules, or cultural norms. • Approach to Treatment: Reteach the person how to go along with society or even possibly change the society. Trimmed Branches Phrenology: by Franz Gall. They believed they could determine your personality and IQ by the size of your brain. They would take precise measurements of one's skull with a string, and this theory contributed to the eugenics movement of the late 1800s to the early 1900s. It's a completely unscientific theory. • Ex 1: Big skull = smart; small skull = dumb and not as smart • Ex 2: Tiny back skull You must not have a lot of love. Gestalt: Established the rules that are used by the brain to create understanding of our world. "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Classifying something as "whole" rather than its parts. ● Ex: When you look at a chair, you classify it as a chair, not 2 pieces of metal supporting plastic. Types/Subfields: Clinical: A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. Treats patients/clients with psychological disorders (mental, emotional, behavior) • Ex: A depressed person who cannot cope goes to a psychologist. Cognitive: How does thought, memory, biases, schemas, (how your brain categorizes things) intelligence, etc. determine behavior? How aware are you? • Ex: What food do you hate? How does that influence your behavior? Evolutionary Psych/Psychobiological: How has the evolutionary process created our modern psychology? Our body and brain are a million years old, modern society is only a couple of thousand years old. ● Ex: Why is fast food so addictive? Biological: How do the physical structures and mechanisms of our body influence our behaviors? Parts of the brain, hormones, genes, nutrition, etc. • Ex: How do you change as a result of drinking a coffee or energy drink? Sociocultural/Multicultural: How does our culture, society, family, influence our psychology and how can psychological experience differ around the world? ● Ex: How do different cultures establish rules for interactions between people and how do these rules influence the people in society? Social: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Studies the impact that other individuals and groups have on human responses and cognition. • Ex: Researchers investigate the effects of online anonymity on a person's behavior. (Trolls) Developmental: Measures how behavior and mental processes evolve over time. How people are continually developing-physically, cognitively, and socially from infancy through old age. Much of its research centers around these 3 main issues: • Nature/Nurture: How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our development? • Continuity/Stages: Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages, like a climbing rungs on a ladder? • Stability/Change: Do our early life personality traits persist through life, or do we become different as we age? ● Ex: A researcher may investigate how a child's taste and understanding of music may alter as their mind grows and develops. Industrial/Organizational: How work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. Uses psychological research to help businesses develop methods to increase sales and efficiency well as increase employee productivity. • Ex: McDonald's: orange, yellow, (encourage eating) • Ex 2: Chipotle: cold, quick, little seating, large windows Health: Researches the reciprocal nature of physical and mental health one another. Ex: Studies being done on the positive effects of a proper diet and exercise on our psyche. Educational: Studies the way in which students learn to create better methods for instruction. • Ex: Researchers have recently advocated the removal of red pens due to their detrimental effects. Experimental: Concerned with testing theories of human thoughts, actions, and beyond. Proves cause and effect relationships through proper scientific processes. • Ex: An experiment to prove that Prozac improves symptoms of depression. Sports: Help athletes improve their mental game-- uses psychological research to enhance team dynamics and increase athlete performance. Goal setting, visualization, meditation • Ex: Cannot sleep before a big game, nausea Psychiatrist vs. Psychologist: Psychologist: Treatment: Focuses on psychotherapy Treats emotional and mental suffering Qualified for psychological testing Education: Must obtain a PhD or a PsyD doctoral degree; usually takes 4-6 years to obtain. Psychologists study personality development, the history of psychological problems, and the science of psychological research. Graduate school provides rigorous preparation for a career in psychology as a career by teaching students how to diagnose emotional and mental disorders in varying situations. After graduate school, psychology students need to complete an internship that lasts for 1-2 years. The internships expose them to methods of treatment, analytical testing, problem-solving techniques, psychological therapy, and behavioral therapy. After the internship, in order to be licensed, most states require 1-2 years of practical work experience that's supervised by a mental health professional. Practice: Psychologists address behavioral patterns and mental disorders/illness. Psychiatrist: Treatment: Medical doctors Can prescribe medication to patients Spend time with their patients with medication management and course of treatment Education: Attended medical school and trained in general medicine. After earning an MD, they practice 4 years of residency training in psychiatry. They typically work in a psychiatry unit in a hospital involving patients, ranging from children and adolescents with behavior disorders, and adults with severe mental illnesses. Practice: Psychologists may refer patients to psychiatrists for prescribing and monitoring medication. Methodology: Experiment: A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. Ex: Hypothesis is that giving high school students caffeine will increase their ability to pay attention. Independent variable is caffeine, and the dependent variable is paying attention. Interview: A directed conversation a researcher, therapist, psychologist, mental health professional, (the interviewer) intends to elicit specific information from an individual (the interviewee) for purposes of research, diagnosis, treatment, or employment. Survey: A study in which a group of participants is selected from a population and data about or opinions from those participants are collected, measured, and analyzed. Information is typically gathered by interview or from a self-report questionnaire. Look at many cases in less depth; participants are asked to report behavior/opinions. Surveys can gather large amounts of information very quickly and the data can be processed into information very easily. It's also a good way to study sensitive topics and allows anonymity. However, participants are able to lie (especially regarding sensitive information), participants can misunderstand the question, and the Wording Effect. You also can't really ask follow-up questions. Wording Effect: The questions can be written in a way that affects the participant's responses. • Ex: Restaurant feedback Case Study: An in-depth investigation of a single individual, family event, or other entity. Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental, etc.) are assembled to understand an individual's background, relationships and behavior. Although case studies allow for intensive analysis of an issue, they are limited in the extent to which their feelings may be generalized. Study one individual in great depth in hope of revealing things true of us all. Case studies are able to provide a full picture of what happened to someone. It also provides chronological data; when events happened. It also provides different insights of the subject. However, case studies are very time consuming since it gathers detailed data from a person's life. If it takes time, it takes money. Case studies are also correlational; you can't assume casualty. Case studies may also not be not generalizable; if you're doing a case study on someone that's done something remarkable or has experienced a traumatic/tragic event, that person's unique, and that might not apply to all of us. ● Ex: Jean Piaget - Child Development Longitudinal Study: Similar to a case study, but research happens over a long period of time. • Ex: Minnesota Twin Study Cross-Cultural Study: Use data from different cultures/societies to compare behavior. (pertaining to a certain aspect) Ex: Familial Patterns (Margaret Mead) Ex-Post Facto: Looking for patterns of behavior after events that occurred. Shortcomings- errors due to history, social interaction, maturation, selection bias, and mortality. ● Ex: Nazi war crimes, 9/11 victims Naturalistic Observation: Data collection in a field setting without laboratory controls or manipulation of variables. These procedures are usually carried out by a trained observer, who watches and records everyday behavior of participants in their natural environments. Watching and recording the behavior of interactions of organisms in their natural environment. Naturalistic observation allows researchers to collect authentic data. People and animals also can't react to the observer's presence if they aren't aware that they're being watched, which possibly allows "real" treatment. For example, if a boy has attention issues, he might behave better in a pediatrician's office (because he knows he's being watched) rather than a classroom setting. However, naturalistic observation challenges the ethics of informed consent. If someone is going to volunteer, they have to give you permission to observe them. But if they know they're being watched, they're not really going to act normally. There's also a "lack of control" when it comes to naturalistic observations; the observer doesn't really know what they're watching. Results can only be descriptions and not explanations; basically, it can't prove causality. • Ex: A psychologist's observation of playing children. Correlation Study (Positive vs. Negative): A type of research design that looks at the relationship between two variables. Correlation studies are non-experimental, so the experimenter does not manipulate or control the variables involved. Confounding Variable: A third variable that influences both the independent and dependent variable. People: Sigmund Freud: Father of psychology. An Austrian physician who invented psychoanalysis; a method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior. He studied the unconscious mind, where all the "cool stuff" is and it needs to be studied. Your unconscious mind is who you really are. Many psychologists, ever since Freud, have either tried to confirm or disprove his ideas. He was also on a lot of cocaine. Charles Darwin: An English naturalist; provided with the theories of evolution, natural selection and sexual selection. Wilhelm Wundt: Opened the first Psychological science laboratory in Germany. (1879) He did a test on reflexes to see how long information took to be processed. He is known as the father of psychology. Edward Bradford Tichtener: Came up with the theory of Structuralism. He was Wilhem Wundt's student and took his ideas back to America. William James: First well-known American psychologist. Created the first psychology textbook; countered Structuralism with Functionalism, and believed psychology should study the function of the brain. He was heavily influenced by Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution. John Locke: An English philosopher. Came up with the Tabula Rasa theory ("Mind is a blank slate.") He also came up with the theory of Empiricism. Hippocrates & Ancient Greeks: "First biochemist." Hippocrates came up with the theory of Humorism. Margaret Floy Washburn: 1st woman to earn a doctoral degree in Psychology (although Harvard refused to grant it because she was a woman.) She was the 2nd female to serve as the APA President after Calkins, and she researched animals and how psychology was similar/different from species to species. Mary Whiton Calkins: Earned a doctorate at Harvard under William James, but Harvard also refused to grant the degree because she was a woman. 1st female APA President 1905. She researched dreams and memory. Stanley Hall: First American Psychological Association president. Experiment Terms: Experiments are the ONLY method that can prove cause and effect. Population: The total number of individuals Subject: Individual that takes part of the experiment/research study, and their performance is assessed and evaluated. Sample - Random vs. Representative: Random: A group/set chosen in a random manner from a larger population. Each person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the study. • Representative: A group/set chosen from a larger statistical population according to specified characteristics. Random Assignment: Each participant has a chance of being put in the experimental or control group. Hypothesis: An empirically testable proposition about some fact, behavior, relationship, usually based on theory, that expects a specific outcome from specific conditions or assumptions. A cause and effect statement the experimenter is attempting to prove. Experimental Group: A group of participants in a research study who are exposed to a particular manipulation of the independent variable. Control Group: A comparison group in study whose members receive either no intervention at all or some established intervention. Independent Variable (IV): The variable in the experiment that's manipulated and is observed to occur before the dependent variable. Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome that is observed to occur after the occurrence or variation of the independent variable in an experiment. Confounding Variables: A third variable that influences the independent and dependent variable. It produces distorted associations between the two variables; they confound the true relationship between the variables. As control increases, confounding variables decrease. However, people do not live in labs; they might just act differently in the experiment due to the unnatural environment. ● Ex: A researcher is interested in the effect exercise has on the overall health of a subject, but does not account for the subject's prior health conditions or diets. Placebo Effect: If we believe something will have an effect, it will. To help reduce the chance of the placebo effect, half of the participants receive the placebo. A placebo is something that is as close to the independent variable as possible, but it's missing something important. It's basically a fake independent variable. Participant/Subject Bias: Consciously or unconsciously behaving in a way to ensure research outcome fits their expectations or what they perceive the researcher wants to find. The influence that research participants' knowledge about aspects of the research has on their responses to experimental conditions and manipulation. • Ex: A participant who knows they're in the experimental group as opposed to the control group might behave differently than they would otherwise. This can be avoided by conducting a Single-Blind procedure. Experimenter/Researcher Bias: Consciously or unconsciously conducts research to ensure the outcome fits with the researcher's expectations. To avoid this, a Double-Blind procedure can be conducted. Controls or Bias - Single-Blind/Double-Blind: • Single-Blind: Participants are unaware of the experimental conditions under which they are operating. Subject doesn't know if they are EG or CG. • Double-Blind: Both the participants and the experimenters are unaware of the experimental conditions. Subject and person conducting the experiment doesn't know who is EG or CG. Overconfidence: We overestimate our ability to succeed. The Hawthorne Plant Study: In 1927-management at Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois called in research psychologist Elton Mayo to conduct a study to identify the conditions by which workers would boost their productivity. The independent variable was the length of rest periods, workdays, and workweeks, and the dependent variable was the productivity. The subjects were 5 women that worked in a team while they were observed. Initially, the productivity of the women increased with the increase of rest periods and shortened workday and workweek. Researchers believed the women returned to work refreshed with more rest and were refreshed for their workday and week. However, when researchers allowed workers to return to their original work schedules to check their findings, they were surprised to find that the productivity levels for women remained the same. Why? Because the subjects were being observed. Despite that, there were also other flaws: there was no control group, the experimental group size was small, subjects did not remain the same over the course of the experiment, and researcher and participant bias was present. Hawthorne Effect: When people are observed, they do the best that they can at the moment. There is an increase in performance when the subject is observed. False Consensus Effect: We overestimate the extent others hold our beliefs. Hindsight: We overestimate our ability to have predicted a given outcome. It's after an event happens. (Ex: "I knew Zendaya was going to win the Emmys!") Illusory Correlations: We assume two variables are related even though they are not. When choosing subjects, consider the population, take a sample. Sample must be random and unbiased, and sample cannot be too small. Operational Definition: A specific definition of a term or variable to aid in replication. Replication: Repeating the procedure exactly to ensure findings weren't by chance. Non-Experimental Terms: Correlational Research: Research that reveals a relationship between two variables. It involves scatterplots, positive and negative correlations, and correlation coefficients. Illusory correlation: Think illusion. (Wealth and happiness) Descriptive Statistics: Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode: • Mean: Add up the values in the data set, then divide by the number of values that you added. • Median: List the data set in numerical order, then find the value which appears in the middle of the list. (If there are 2 medians, add of them together, then divide them by 2.) Mode: The value in the data that appears most frequently. ● Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data • Quantitative Data: Researchers often start with this; this deals with numbers. Ex: A researcher collected data from a personality test which determined that 15 subjects scored 35, 70, 45, 68, 68, 58, 70, 20, 70, 58, 45, 40, 35, 30, and 90. ● Qualitative Data: Researchers use qualitative data to deal with the descriptive data. The data collected is investigative in nature and often open-end. Ex: A researcher has collected data from a personality test. They've collected the age, gender, and ethnicity of their subjects. Qualitative data also places them in categories. Descriptive vs. Inferential Data: • Descriptive: Researchers organize and describe data. There are several steps and tools researchers use when managing their data such as placing them in frequency charts and graphs. • Inferential: When making predictions about data collected, researchers use Inferential statistics. Researchers can predict (generalize) how their data and the independent variable relates to the larger population. Types of Data and Scales of Measurement: • Discrete Data: Data which can be counted (ex. Number of people in a room) Nominal Scale: Data without any structure or order (ex. Tall vs. short) Ordinal Scale: Count and order, but not measure (ex. Strongly like to strongly dislike) • Continuous Data: Data which can be measured (ex. Shoe size) Interval Scale: Degrees of difference but not the ratio between them (ex. 1981-1982) Ratio Scale: Processes a meaningful measurement with a zero value) (ex. Weight, volume, and distance) • Dichotomy Scale: Two categories when organizing data (ex. Male vs. Female) • Trichotomy Scale: Three or more categories (ex. Tall, Medium, and Short) Scatterplot: Plot data points on a horizontal and vertical axis to show how one variable is affected by another. They are used by researchers to understand the relationship between two variables. Correlation Coefficient: The strengthening of the two variables; the closer the value is to +1.0 or -1.0, the stronger the relationship. A numerical index reflecting the degree of a linear relationship between two variables. The value of +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship, while the value of -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship. O indicates no relationship. How close two things vary. Normal Plot: A graphical technique for assessing whether or not a data set is approximately normally distributed. Positive & Negative Skews: Positive Skewness: The tail on the right side of the graph is longer or fatter; the mean and median will be greater than the mode. Mode Median -Mean Positive Skew • Negative Skewness: The tail of the left side of the graph is longer or fatter than the right side of the graph; the mean and median will be less than the mode. Median Mean- Negative Skew Mode Standard Deviation, Range, and Variance: Standard Deviation (o): How spread out the numbers are. • Variance: The average of the squared differences from the mean. • Range: The difference between the highest and lowest value points. It does not reveal the distance from the mean. Statistical significance (p): Research outcome cannot be reasonably attributed to the operation of chance or random factors. The likelihood data collection is a result of the manipulation of the independent variable and not left to chance. Researchers are looking to establish p-value which is closest to zero, so they know their data supports their hypothesis and outside factors have not influenced their results. It is the degree to which a research outcome cannot reasonably be attributed to the operation of chance or random factors. Extra: • Artistoles, Plato, and Socrates were the first ones to ask the "big questions" of human existences 2,500 years ago. • Psychodynamic is the modern day Psychoanalysis and includes other psychologists. Psychoanalysis is only Freud. Ethical Guidelines in Psychology • Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence: Do no harm to your subjects. Don't hurt them. • Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility: Cultivate a positive atmosphere for the subject so they feel that the field of psychology and scientific environment is built on trust, accountability, and consideration. • Principle C: Integrity: Psychologists must engage in trust and transparent practices within all aspects of their research. • Principle D: Justice: Psychologists must prevent unjust practices by remaining aware of their biases, level of competence, and area of limits of their expertise. • Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity: Subjects must have informed consent and rights to privacy. ***However, there is an exception to Principle C. Researchers can deceive subjects when conducting social psychological research. The Stanley Milgram Experiment is a good example of this. He deceived subjects by telling them that they were participating in a study of memory, but they were actually participating in a study of obedience.