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psych should be objective science based on observable behavior) Behaviorism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) Pavlov's experiments O Dogs salivate at sight of food - did experiments with dog drool O Neutral stimuli (NS) : in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning O Unconditioned response (UR): in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). O Unconditioned stimulus (US): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response (UR) O Conditioned response (CR): in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) O Conditioned stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) o Explored five conditioning processes ■ ■ Spontaneous recovery Generalization Discrimination 26.3 - In Classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination? ● Acquisition o Acquisition: in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the ■ ■ Acquisition Extinction conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response How much time between NS and US? Does Not occur when NS follows US Conditioning helps an animal survive and reproduce-by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring Higher-order conditioning: a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning) Extinction and spontaneous recovery . ● ● O Extinction: the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced Suppresses doesn't eliminate o Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response ● Generalization O Generalization: the tendancy, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus elicit a similar response Can be adaptive Generalized fears can linger Stimuli similar to naturally disgusting objects also evoke disgust → fudge and dog poop ■ ■ I Discrimination O Discrimination : in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned response ● 26.4 - Why does Pavlov's work remain so important, and what have been some applications of his work to human health and well-being? Pavlov's legacy o Most psychologists now agree that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning o Important - many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in other organisms and pavlov showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objective · • Applications of classical conditioning O Pavlov's principles can influence human health and well-being Suggested scientific model for psychology to advance O Work provided basis for Watson's idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses o Experiment with little albert Flip It Video: Associative Learning Principles • Why is this important? . . ▪ How does learning happen? Experiencing a situation? Watching others experience a situation? • Learning by association ● O At its most basic learning happens by association ● ● O Associating one stimulus with another o Associating a behavior with a consequence Law of effect • Reinforcement always encourages a behavior ● Punishment always discourages a behavior Operant conditioning · I Final thoughts O The distinction between classical and operant conditioning is important to keep straight Classical - one stimulus is closely paired with another to make a connection Operant - what happens after a behavior determines whether that behavior repeats Flip It Video: Pavlov's Experiment - The Basics ● Ivan pavlov O O ■ I O Russian physiologist who earned the 1904 nobel prize in physiology and medicine O His studies on digestion led to the discovery of classical conditioning Classical conditioning hints Transfer a response from one stimulus to another The original response is either natural or learned previously Classical conditioning O Unconditioned = unlearned O ■ Conditioned learned Stimulus an object that brings on a response o Response = a reaction to a stimulus O O Pavlov's experiment Unconditioned stimulus - food O Unconditioned response - salivating O Neutral stimulus - tone of bell Conditioned stimulus - tone of bell (after conditioning) O Conditioned response - salivation (after conditioning) ● Final flip it thoughts O Ivan pavlov's experiment was done in 1904 and paved the way for future psychologists O Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species Module 27: Operant Conditioning 27.1- What is operant conditioning, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped? ● Operant conditioning O Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior - actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus o Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher ■ O Skinner's Experiments O B.F. Skinner . Operant behavior - behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli . College english major and aspiring writer Entered psychology graduate school Modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure Elaborated on Edward L. Thorndike's work ● Law of effect: Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Developed principles of behavior control - teach pigeons how to play ping pong! Designed operant chamber • Operant chamber: in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking • Lever, disc Reinforcement: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows • Depends on animal and conditions Ex. praise, attention, paycheck, food, water Shaping behavior Shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Build on existing behaviors ● ● I ● Ex. green traffic light - signal that a response will be reinforced 27.2 - How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers? • Types of reinforcers successive approximations - reward responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior Also helps understand what nonverbal organisms perceive → must know they perceive difference between two stimuli Discriminative stimulus : in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement) ● O Positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. o negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment) O Sometimes behavior reinforced by both O O Reinforcement - any consequence that strengthens behavior Primary and conditioned reinforcers o Primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need O Conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer Ex. money, good grades, pleasant tone of voice ● Immediate and delayed reinforcers O Humans respond to delayed reinforcers, learn delay gratification Part of maturity O Small but immediate consequences are sometimes more alluring but bad in the long run RISKY WOOHOO 27.3 How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior? Reinforcement Schedules O Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced O O Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Learning occurs rapidly Extinction occurs rapidly Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement O ■ Works with childrenT o Fixed-ratio schedules: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses · O Variable-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses Slot machine players Produces high rates of responding fixed -interval schedule : in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed Respond more frequently as anticipated time for reward draws near Choppy, stop-start pattern of response O Variable-interval schedule : in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Rechecking email o Response rates higher when reinforcement is linked to the number of responses (ratio schedule) rather than to time (interval schedule) O Learning slower to appear Resistance to extinction greater ■ . ■ o Responding more consistent when reinforcement is unpredictable than when it is predictable O Reinforcement principles of operant conditioning are universal (skinner) ● 27.4 - How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior? Punishment Punishment: an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows O Punisher - any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior Type of Punisher Description Examples Positive punishment Negative punishment ● ● O O Administer an aversive stimulus O Withdraw a rewarding stimulus O Crime influenced more by swift and sure punishers than by the threat of severe sentences How should we interpret in relation to parenting? Four major drawbacks ■ ■ Punishment tells you what not to do, reinforcement tells you what to do O Critics objected I Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten, this temporary state may negatively reinforce parent's punishing behavior Punishment teaches discrimination among situations Punishment can teach fear 27.5 why did Skinner's ideas provoke controversy? O Insisted external influences shape behavior Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems Reinforcement Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding Flip It Video: Reinforcement ● BF Skinner Take away a teen's driving privileges; revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines Said he dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions Skinner replied external consequences already haphazardly control people's behavior → why not use towards human betterment? O Behaviorism o Operant conditioning History shapes us, but we can shape our future Positive reinforcement o Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows O Reinforcement increases behavior o Adding desirable stimulus ● Negative reinforcement Module 28: Operant Conditioning's Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning 28.1 - How might Skinner's operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, at home and for self improvement? ● O Removes an aversive stimulus - painkillers kill pain • Applications of Operant conditioning ● At school ● ● Skinner envisioned teaching machines and textbooks to reinforce correct responses immediately o Prompt feedback allows students to move on when answer right O Electronic adaptive quizzes help O In sports o Reinforcing small successes and then gradually increasing the challenge O Faster skill improvement O Accidental timing of rewards produce superstitious behaviors May experience small partial reinforcement At work O Rewards to increase productivity if desired performance has been well defined and is achievable O Reward specific, achievable behaviors, not vaguely defined merit Reinforcement should be immediate O ● At home O Parents can reinforce whining, children reinforce yelling = destructive relationship O To disrupt cycle - notice people doing something right and affirm them for it o Target specific behavior and reward it ● For self-improvement O Build self control by reinforcing own desired behaviors ad extinguish undesired ones o Steps: . State your goal in measurable terms Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior Reinforce the desired behavior Reduce the rewards gradually ● 28.2 How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning? • Contrasting classical and operant conditioning O Both Basic idea Response Acquisition O Biofeedback: a system for electronically recording, amplifying and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension Extinction I ■ O Classical conditioning I Forms of associative learning Involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination ▪ Respondent behaviors: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus o Operant conditioning Operant behavior: behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences Classical Conditioning Organism associates events. Involuntary, automatic. Operant Conditioning CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone. Organism associates behavior and resulting events. Voluntary, operates on the environment. Associating events; NS is paired with US Associating response with a and becomes CS. consequence (reinforcer or punisher). Responding decreases when reinforcement stops. Spontaneous recovery Generalization Discrimination The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR. The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS. The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US. Module 29 : Biology, Cognition, and Learning ● 29.1- biological constraints on conditioning • Biological constraints on conditioning ● Limits on classical conditioning O o Animal's capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology . O John garcia challenged idea (with robert koelling) The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response. Predispositions prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its survival Organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced. ● Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced. Noticed rats began to avoid drinking water from plastic bottles in radiation chambers Tested hunch by exposing rats to particular taste, sight or sound and later to radiation or drugs Avoided flavor but did not avoid sight or sound Called taste aversion contradicted the behaviorists' idea that any perceivable stimulus could serve as a CS O Humans function similarly - more likely to have aversion to taste o Findings can be used to preserve prey and predators - wolf and sheep example o Supports darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival Can explain why humans associate things Ex. red and sexuality • Blushing, ovulation Nausea, anxiety, pain serve good purpose O O O US Before conditioning (drug) NS Conditioning (waiting room) O ● Limits on Operant conditioning O Most easily learn and retain behaviors that reflect our biological predispositions Condition a hamster to dig or rear up with food, bc these are natural to it with food Harder to train to wash face bc not associated with food US (drug) (S After conditioning (waiting room) . UR (nausea) o Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive O Marian breland and keller breland Learned from BF skinner Built company that trained animals for movies, shows, amusement parks, corporations and the government Learned about biological constraints - pigs and instinctive drift ● 29.2 - How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning? • Cognition's influence on conditioning • Cognitive processes and classical conditioning O Can influence attitudes CR (nausea) UR (nausea) Pavlov and watson underestimated importance of effects of cognitive processes Robert rescorla and allan wagnar showed animal can learn predictability of an event Ex. shock sometimes preceded by light but always by tone, rat reacts with fear to tone but not light Animal learns expectancy - awareness of how likely it is that the unconditioned stimulus will occur Pokemon experiment! - like pokemon associated with happy things Conditioned likes and dislikes are stronger when people notice and are aware of the associations Classical conditioning treatments that ignore cognition have limited success ● Ex. if alcoholics know alcohol contains sick drug, associate sick drug with sick and not alcohol • Cognitive processes and operant conditioning O BF Skinner resisted the growing belief that cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, expectations) have a necessary place in the science of psychology and our understanding of conditioning . O ■ o Insight learning Ex. animals expect Latent learning Edward chase tolman and C. H. Honzik Cognitive map: a mental representation of the layout of one's environment, for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it Latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Rats demonstrated latent learning by showing they had developed a cognitive map of a maze There is more to learning than associating a response with a consequence; there is also cognition Intrinsic motivation or the Insight: a sudden realization of a problem's solution I Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake • Rewarding for task that is enjoyed destroys intrinsic motivation ● Called overjustification ● 29.3 - In what two ways do people learn to cope with personal problems? • Learning and personal control extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment O Coping: alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods O Problem-focused coping: attempting to alleviate stress directly-by changing the stressor way we interact with that stressor Used when sense of control over circumstances/our ability to deal with them Can more effectively reduce stress and promote long term health O Emotion-focused coping: attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction Believe we cannot change a situation Adaptive - exercise to avoid addiction ● ● maladaptive - students party to avoid worrying 29.4 - how does a perceived lack of control affect people's behavior and health? Learned helplessness O O Learned helplessness: the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Ex. dogs shocked without escape won't try to escape when given opportunity . O Humans too - helpless, hopeless and depressed More control workers or elderly have, longer they live Increasing self control improves health and morale o Explains link between economic status and longevity- more likely to live longer if better economic status o Why? Losing control triggers stress hormones Immune responses drop Internal versus external locus of control External locus of control: the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate ● More americans now endorse ● Can explain why we're all depressed rip Internal locus of control: the perception that you control your own fate Studies show achieve more in school/work, healthier, less depressed ● ● Better at delaying gratification and coping with stressors o Depleting and strengthening self control Self-control the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards ● Good adjustment, better grades, social success, lower depression risk Fluctuates, like exercising muscle harder after exercise Depletes blood sugar and mental focus Requires energy and attention Flip It Video: Robert Rescorla's Research : Cognition in Classical Conditioning ● Battle for behaviorism ● ● ● Robert rescorla vs. ivan pavlov O Pavlov's position O All you need to do is pair a NS with a US for classical conditioning to occur ● Rescorla's position O A NS cannot become a CS unless it has predictive value • Significance O Pavlov's behaviorist view argued that cognition was not important- we can understand learning without considering what happens "between the ears" Rescorla demonstrated that cognition is important, classical conditioning can only occur if the CS reliably predicts the US ● O Determining predictability is a cognitive function Flip It Video: John Garcia's Research: Taste Aversion ● John Garcia O ● He was in his 40s when he earned his Ph.D. O Recipient of APA distinguished scientific contribution award Garcia's research O US = radiation UR = sickness NS = flavor, sight or sound O Flavor became a CS and produced the CR of sickness O Sights and sounds remained neutral for sickness O Taste aversion has evolutionary significance for rats O O O O Sights and sounds are less likely to signal bad food • Significance O Behaviorism argued that biology is not important- pairing any NS with a US should produce classical conditioning O Gracia demonstrated that biology is important conditioning is more likely to occur to a biologically significant stimulus Module 30: Learning by Observation 30.1- What is observational learning, and how do some scientists believe it is enabled by mirror neurons? O observational learning : learning by observing others, also called social learning Watching and imitating others Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior ● How we learn native languages Children throwing that poor doll around after watching adults doing it ● ● O Mirrors and imitation in the brain Used their words too Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment Learn to anticipate behavior's consequences When we identify with someone we experience their outcomes vicariously O Mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so, the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy Fire when monkey does something like grasping or tearing and when he watches others do the same o Many examples of observational learning in different species and from generation to generation O Imitation pervasive in humans ■ Catchphrases, fashions, ceremonies, foods, traditions, morals and fads Omg like how i said so many ur mom jokes that all my friends started making them too Children see, children do! • 2-5 year olds overimitate (add extra steps if that's what they observe) Debate is human capacity to stimulate another's action and to share in another's experience due to specialized mirror neurons or distributed brain networks? Theory of mind - children's brains enable their empathy and their ability to infer another's mental state O Makes emotions contagious Brain simulates and vicariously experiences what we observe Can make us misremember actions Helps us grasp other's state of mind • Unconsciously synchronize posture, face, voice and writing style ● O YAWNS Activates same parts of the brain as if we were experiencing Brain activity underlies our intensely social nature 30,2- What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling? • Applications of observational learning O Prosocial effects O Prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior, opposite of antisocial behavior O Examples- ● Business organizations use behavior modeling to help new employees learn communications, sales, and customer service skills - gain skill faster Exemplifying nonviolent behavior prompts nonviolent behavior - Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. Parents · ● ● o Learning of morality begins early Most effective when their actions and words are consistent Will imitate hypocrisy Antisocial effects Cycles of abuse Tv shows and internet videos are a powerful source of observational learning Does not reflect reality tho, only culture's mythology • Violence-viewing effect ●