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Law Performance level O-X Low 4. A Hierarchy of Needs stress or anxiety Difficult tasks Low Easy tasks Arousal proposed by humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) O stated that we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. High O Near the end of his life, Maslow proposed that some people also reach a level of self-transcendence. Module 53 Hunger Motivation At the self-actualization level, people seek to realize their own potential. At the self-transcendence level, people strive for meaning, purpose and communion in a way that is transpersonal-beyond the self. 1. The Physiology of Hunger O We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first. ■ O Glucose a. Body Chemistry and the Brain O Hunger does NOT come from our stomach, but comes from the hypothalamus in our brain. ■ ● ● Insulin Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one's. fullest and unique potential Orexin Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others ● Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation Hypothalamus Safety needs Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable Physiological needs Need to satisfy hunger and thirst ● Leptin ● Protein produced by bloated fat cells ● Send a message to "stop eating" Form of sugar which circulates through the body One feels hunger when the levels become low. Hormone which allows the body to use glucose for energy or fat production As insulin levels increase, glucose levels decrease. Hunger-triggering hormone Produced by the hypothalamus As glucose levels drop, orexin levels increase and person feels hungry ■ Lateral Hypothalamus ● When stimulated it makes you hungry. ● When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again. Ventromedial Hypothalamus ● When stimulated you feel full. When lesioned you will never feel full again. O Set point ■ the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set ■ When the body falls below this weight, an increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) 2. They Psychology of Hunger a. Taste Preferences: Biology and Culture O O I the body's resting rate at which we burn calories for energy O Hunger reflects our memory of when we last ate and our expectation of when we should eat again. Humans as a species prefer certain tastes (such as sweet and salty), but our individual preferences are also influenced by conditioning, culture, and situation. Some taste preferences, such as the avoidance of new foods or of foods that have made us ill, have survival value. b. Situational Influences on Eating O a phenomenon psychologists have called the ecology of eating O Ex. arousing appetite, friends and food, serving size is significant, selections stimulate, nudging nutrition O Module 54 Sexual Motivation 1. Physiology of Sex a. Hormones and Sexual Behavior O For all but the tiny fraction of us considered asexual, dating and mating become a priority from puberty on. The female estrogens and male testosterone hormones influence human sexual behavior less directly than they influence sexual behavior in other species. These hormones direct sexual development in the prenatal period; trigger developmental of sexual characteristics in adolescence; and help activate sexual behavior from puberty to late adulthood. O Women's sexuality, as well as men's, is responsive to testosterone levels. Short-term shifts in testosterone level are normal in men, partly in response to stimulation. b. The Sexual Response Cycle O four stages, described by William Masters and Virginia Johnson 1) (Initial) Excitement 2) Plateau Phase 3) Orgasm 4) Resolution Phase (with refractory period) 2. The Psychology of Sex ● External stimuli can trigger sexual arousal in both men and women. ● Biopsychosocial Influences O Sexual Motivation ■ Biological influences ■ sexual maturity ● sex hormones, especially testosterone Psychological influences exposure to stimulating conditions ● sexual fantasies Social-cultural influences ● family and society values ● religious and personal values • cultural expectations ● media • Viewing sexually coerced material can lead to increased acceptance of violence toward women. O Viewing sexually explicit materials can cause people to perceive their partners as ● Module 55 Affiliation and Achievement 1. The Need to Belong ● comparatively less appealing and to devalue their relationships. Imagined stimuli (dreams and fantasies) help trigger sexual arousal. ● Our need to affiliate or belong-to feel connected and identified with others-had survival value for our ancestors, which may explain why humans in every society live in groups. Social bonds help us to be healthier and happier. Feeling loved activates brain regions associated with rewards and safety systems. Ostracism is the deliberate exclusion of individuals or groups. O People often respond to ostracism with initial effort to restore their acceptance, with depressed moods, and finally with withdrawal. Social isolation can put us at risk mentally and physically. O People suffer when socially excluded, so they may engage in self-defeating or antisocial behavior. We connect others through social networking, strengthening our relationships with those we already know. When networking, people tend toward increased self-disclosure. People with high narcissism are especially active on social networking sites. ● Working out strategies for self-control and disciplined use can help people maintain a healthy balance between their real-world and online time. 2. Achievement Motivation a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard. ● High achievement motivation →→ greater success, especially when combined with determined, persistent grit. Intrinsic Motivators: Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction. ● Extrinsic Motivators: Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..); Work great in the short run. When Motives Conflict o Approach-approach conflict O Avoidance-avoidance conflict O Approach-avoidance conflict O Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts Module 56 Theories and Physiology of Emotion 1. Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition ● Emotions are a mix of O bodily arousal (heart pounding) O expressive behaviors (quickened pace), and O conscious experience ("Is this kidnapping") and feelings (panic, fear, and joy). a. Historical Emotion Theories i. James-Lange Theory: Arousal Comes Before Emotion maintains that emotional feelings follow our body's response to emotion-inducing stimuli. Ex. We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid. ■ ii. ● b. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Arousal + Label = emotion O holds that our emotions have two ingredients, physical arousal and a cognitive label, and the cognitive levels we put on our states of arousal are an essential ingredient of emotions. O We may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context. c. Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Does Cognition Always Precede Emotion? O Richard Lazarus American psychologist who concluded that some emotional responses do not require conscious thought but still involve some kind of unconscious cognitive appraisal. ■ agreed that many important emotions arise from our inferences. Ex. The sound is "just the wind." Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously proposes that our body responds to emotion at the same time that we experience the emotion (one does not cause the other). Ex. Our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid. O ● ■ Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux ■ claimed that some simple emotional reactions occur instantly, not only outside our conscious awareness but before any cognitive processing occurs. This interplay between emotion and cognition illustrates our two-track mind. Ex. We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat. 2. Embodied Emotion ■ Caroll Izard's 10 primary emotions are joy, interest/excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. ● The arousal component of emotion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system's sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions. In a crisis, the fight-or-flight response automatically mobilizes your body for action. The large-scale body changes that accompany fear, and anger, and sexual arousal are veru similar (increase perspiration, breathing, and heart rate), though they feel different. O Emotions may be similarly arousing, but some subtle physiological responses, such as facial muscle movements, distinguish the,. More meaningful differences have been found in activity in some brain pathways and cortical areas. Module 57 Expressing Emotion 1. Detecting Emotion in Others ● Much of our communication is through body movements, facial expressions, and voice tones. Even seconds-long slimmed slices of behavior can reveal feelings. 2. Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior ● Women tend to read emotional cues more easily and to express more empathy. 3. Culture and Emotional Expression ● The meaning of gestures varies with culture, but facial expressions for primary emotions, such as happiness and fear, are common the world over, as Darwin's evolutionary theory explained. ● Cultures also differ in the amount of emotion they express. 4. The Effects of Facial Expressions Research on the facial edback effect shows that our facial expressions can trigger motional feelings and signal our body to respond accordingly. O We also mimic others' expressions, which helps us empathize. A similar behavior feedback effect is the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions. Module 58 Stress and Illness 1. Stress: Some Basic Concepts a. The Stress Response System O Walter Cannon viewed the stress response as a "fight-or-flight" system. O Later researchers identified an additional stress response system in which the adrenal glands secrete glucocorticoid stress hormones O O O 3. Happiness Ex. cortisol Hans Selye proposed a general three-phase (alarm-resistance-exhaustion) general adaptation syndrome (GAS) Prolonged stress can damage neurons, hastening cell death. b. Stress and Vulnerability to Disease O O Facing stress, women may have been a tend-and-befriend response; men may without socially, turn to alcohol, or become aggressive. Stress diverts energy from the immune system, inhibiting the activities of its B and T lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells. Stress does not cause diseases such as cancer, but by altering our immune functioning it may make us more vulnerable to diseases and influence their progression. Module 59 Health and Happiness 1. Promoting Health Studies of people with an optimistic outlook show that their immune system is stronger, their blood pressure does not increase as sharply in response to stress, their recovery from heart bypass surgery is faster, and their life expectancy is longer. ● Social support promotes health by calming us, by reducing blood pressure and stress hormones, and by fostering stronger immune functioning. O We can significantly reduce our stress and increase our health by building and maintaining relationships with family and friends, and by finding meaning even in difficult times 2. Reducing Stress ● Aerobic exercise is sustained, oxygen-consuming activity that increases heart and lung fitness. O It increases arousal, leads to muscle relaxation and sounder sleep, triggers the production of neurotransmitters, and enhances self-image. It can relieve depression and is associated with longer life and better cognitive functioning in later life. O Relaxation and meditation have been shown to reduce stress by relaxing muscles, lowering blood pressure, improving immune functioning, and lessening anxiety and depression. Mindfulness meditation is a reflective practice of attending to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner. ■ Massage therapy also relaxes muscles and reduces depression a. Positive Psychology O A good mood brightens people's perceptions of the world. Happy people tend to be healthy, energized, and satisfied with life, which makes them more willing to help others (the feel-good, do-good phenomenon). O Positive psychologists use scientific methods to study human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. O Subjective well-being is your perception of being happy or satisfied with life. O The moods triggered by good or bad events seldom last beyond that day. Even significant good events, such as sudden wealth, seldom increase happiness for long. Happiness is relative to our own experiences (the adaptation-level phenomenon) and to others' success (the relative deprivation principle). O