Autism Spectrum Disorder and Anxiety Disorders

This page delves into the characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder $ASD$ and various anxiety disorders. ASD is characterized by deficits in social communication and interactions, as well as repetitive behaviors and interests. The severity of ASD is determined by the level of support needed for communication and behavior.

Definition: Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by challenges in social interaction, communication, and restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests.

The text then transitions to anxiety disorders, which are marked by excessive fear or anxiety and maladaptive behaviors to cope with or avoid anxiety. Several types of anxiety disorders are discussed:

1. Panic disorder: Characterized by sudden panic attacks and anticipatory anxiety about future attacks.
2. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Involves excessive worry about various events or activities.
3. Specific Phobias: Intense fear of specific objects or situations.
4. Social Anxiety Disorder: Fear triggered by social interactions.
5. Agoraphobia: Fear of being unable to escape or being embarrassed in public places.

Example: A person with social anxiety disorder might avoid attending social gatherings or speaking in public due to intense fear and anxiety about these situations.

Treatment options for anxiety disorders include medication $such as benzodiazepines$ and psychological interventions like systematic desensitization. Systematic desensitization is a form of exposure therapy that gradually exposes individuals to anxiety-provoking stimuli while teaching relaxation techniques.

Highlight: Systematic desensitization employs counter-conditioning, aiming to replace unwanted responses with calming sensations through gradual, controlled exposure to anxiety triggers.

Depressive Disorders and Their Causes

This section focuses on depressive disorders, which are characterized by extreme sadness or emptiness, along with maladaptive thoughts and behaviors. To diagnose a depressive disorder, two key symptoms must be present every day for a two-week period:

1. Persistent sadness, hopelessness, or a feeling of emptiness
2. Anhedonia: loss of interest or pleasure in activities

Vocabulary: Anhedonia refers to the inability to feel pleasure in normally enjoyable activities, a core symptom of depression.

Other symptoms of depression may include weight changes, sleep disturbances, fatigue, excessive guilt, and thoughts of death or suicide. The text also mentions that some depressive disorders may have seasonal patterns, with symptoms coinciding with particular times of the year.

The causes of abnormal behaviour in psychology, specifically depression, are explored from multiple perspectives:

1. Behavioral approach: Learned helplessness, as demonstrated by Martin Seligman's experiments with dogs.
2. Biological factors: Neurotransmitter abnormalities, particularly involving serotonin.
3. Cognitive-Behavioral Cycle: Cognitive aspect: Some individuals have a pessimistic explanatory style, blaming themselves for negative events and believing these events will continue indefinitely. Behavioral aspect: People engage in maladaptive behaviors as coping mechanisms, such as substance abuse or social isolation.

Example: A person with depression might interpret a minor setback at work as evidence of their overall incompetence, leading to a cycle of negative thoughts and withdrawal from social interactions.

This comprehensive approach to understanding depression highlights the complex interplay between biological, psychological, and environmental factors in the development and maintenance of depressive disorders.

Bipolar and Related Disorders

This page discusses bipolar and related disorders, which are characterized by alternating periods of mania or hypomania and depression. The text outlines the key features of manic episodes, including:

1. Elevated, expansive, or irritable mood
2. Increased goal-directed activity or energy
3. Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
4. Decreased need for sleep
5. More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking
6. Flight of ideas or racing thoughts
7. Distractibility
8. Excessive involvement in activities with high potential for painful consequences

Definition: Bipolar disorder is a mental health condition characterized by extreme mood swings that include emotional highs $mania or hypomania$ and lows $depression$.

The text distinguishes between Bipolar I Disorder, which requires at least one manic episode, and Bipolar II Disorder, which involves hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes but no full manic episodes. Cyclothymic Disorder is also mentioned, characterized by numerous periods of hypomanic and depressive symptoms that do not meet the full criteria for manic or depressive episodes.

Treatment approaches for bipolar disorders are discussed, including:

1. Mood stabilizers: Medications like lithium that help regulate mood swings
2. Antipsychotics: Used to manage manic symptoms
3. Antidepressants: Sometimes used in combination with mood stabilizers to treat depressive episodes
4. Psychotherapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy $CBT$ and interpersonal therapy can help manage symptoms and improve functioning

Highlight: The management of bipolar disorder often requires a combination of medication and psychotherapy to effectively control mood swings and prevent relapse.

The text emphasizes the importance of ongoing treatment and monitoring for individuals with bipolar disorder, as the condition is chronic and can significantly impact various aspects of a person's life.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

This section focuses on Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder $OCD$ and related conditions. OCD is characterized by persistent, intrusive thoughts $obsessions$ and repetitive behaviors or mental acts $compulsions$ that a person feels compelled to perform to alleviate anxiety or prevent feared outcomes.

Example: A person with OCD might have an obsessive fear of contamination, leading to compulsive hand-washing rituals that interfere with daily life.

The text outlines the key features of obsessions and compulsions:

Obsessions:

1. Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that cause anxiety or distress
2. The individual attempts to ignore, suppress, or neutralize these thoughts

Compulsions:

1. Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession
2. These behaviors aim to prevent or reduce anxiety or distress, but are not realistically connected to what they are designed to neutralize

The text also discusses related disorders, such as:

1. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Preoccupation with perceived defects in physical appearance
2. Hoarding Disorder: Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, regardless of their actual value
3. Trichotillomania: Recurrent pulling out of one's hair
4. Excoriation Disorder: Recurrent skin picking

Vocabulary: Trichotillomania is a mental disorder characterized by the compulsive urge to pull out one's hair, leading to noticeable hair loss.

Treatment approaches for OCD and related disorders are discussed, including:

1. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy $CBT$: Particularly Exposure and Response Prevention $ERP$ therapy
2. Medication: Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors $SSRIs$ are often prescribed
3. Combination of therapy and medication for more severe cases

Highlight: Exposure and Response Prevention therapy is considered the gold standard psychological treatment for OCD, involving gradual exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli while preventing the associated compulsive behaviors.

The text emphasizes the importance of early intervention and appropriate treatment for these disorders, as they can significantly impact a person's quality of life and daily functioning.

Indicators of Abnormal Behaviors and Thoughts

This section outlines the key indicators used to identify abnormal behaviors and thoughts in clinical psychology. The five indicators of abnormal behaviors and thoughts in clinical psychology are statistically rare occurrences, distress, maladaptive behaviors, irrational actions, and persistence over time.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual 5th edition $DSM-5$ establishes criteria for diagnosing mental disorders based on the number and duration of symptoms. While diagnostic labeling provides a universal language for mental health professionals, it can lead to overfitting individuals to diagnoses.

Highlight: The Rosenhan study demonstrated how diagnostic labels can influence perception, with 7 out of 8 healthy research participants being misdiagnosed with schizophrenia when admitted to psychiatric hospitals.

The section also introduces schizophrenia spectrum disorders, characterized by a disconnection from reality. Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, and paranoid thoughts. The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia suggests that overactive dopamine receptors in the prefrontal cortex and sensory regions contribute to the disorder.

Vocabulary: Concordance rates refer to the probability that related individuals will develop a genetically heritable disorder.

Antipsychotic drugs, which act as dopamine antagonists, are used to control delusional thinking and hallucinations in schizophrenia. The section concludes by introducing neurodevelopmental disorders, which manifest during early childhood and are characterized by developmental deficits or delays.