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protection from the dangers of the adult world. → Therefore, children's lives are lived largely in the sphere of family and education with adults providing for them. → They lead lives of play and leisure whereas adults focus on working making children excluded from paid work. 5. How does Benedict (1934) see childhood as different in non-industrial societies ? Explain → They take responsibility- children in Bolivia from about 5 years old are expected to work responsibilities at home and in the community. → Less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority- Firth found that among the Tikopia of Western Pacific, doing as you are told by a grown-up is regarded as a concession to be granted by the child, not a right to be expected by the adult. → Children's sexual behaviour is often viewed differently- among the Trobriand Islanders of south west pacific, Bronislaw Malinowski found adults took an attitude of 'tolerance and amused interest' towards children's sexual explorations and activities. 6. How does this show that childhood is a social construct? → Benedict argues that in many non-traditional cultures, there is much less of a dividing line between the behaviour expected of children and adults. Suggests childhood is not a fixed thing found universally in the same form in all human societies, but is socially constructed and then differs across cultures. 7. Why do some sociologists argue that western notions of childhood are being globalised? →➜ International humanitarian and welfare agencies have exported and imposed on the rest of the world, western norms of what childhood should be- a separate life stage, based in the nuclear family and school where children are innocent, dependent, vulnerable etc... → Viewed that Western Childhood is spreading throughout the world. However arguably such campaigns have little impact on the position of children in developing countries. 8. Why do many sociologists argue that childhood is a recent "invention"? → The position of childhood changes overtime, as well as between different societies. → Sociologists understand that childhood today is a recent 'invention'. 9. Why does Aries (1960) argue that in the middle ages, childhood did not exist? → Children in the middle ages were not seen as having a different 'nature' or needs from adults or not once they passed the stage of physical dependency during infancy. → Children in the middle ages started working when they were young, just weaned. Children were practically 'mini adults' with the same rights, duties and skills as adults. E.g. The law often made no distinction between children and adults and children often faced the same severe punishments as adults. →➜ In pieces of art, children appear without any of the characteristics of childhood: they have simply been depicted on a smaller scale.' 10. What does Shorter (1975) argue? → Shorter argues that high death rates encouraged indifference and neglect, especially towards infants. 11. What elements of the modern notion of childhood began to emerge from the 13th century onwards? → Schools purely educated the young. This reflected the influence of the church, which increasingly saw children as fragile 'creatures of God' in need of discipline and protection from worldly evils. → There was a growing distinction between children's and adult clothing- that were suitable for one's age, which set them apart from adults. → By the 18th century, there were handbooks on child rearing which was a sign of the growing child- centeredness of family life, at least among MC. 12. Why do sociologists such as Pollock (1983) criticise this view? → She argues it is more correct to say that in the Middle ages, society simply had a different notion of childhood from today's. 13. What are the reasons for the changes in the position of children? → Laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work → The introduction of compulsory schooling in 1880 → Child protection and welfare legislation → The growth of the idea of children's rights → Declining family size and lower infant mortality rates → Children's development became the subject of medical knowledge → Laws and policies that specifically applied to children → Industrialisation 14. How is childhood expected to change in the future? → Potentially as we move from a modern to postmodern society, there will be change in the perspective of childhood. 15. Why does Postman (1994) argue that childhood is disappearing? → Postman argues childhood is disappearing because there is a shift towards giving children the same rights as adults through the growing similarities of adults' and children's clothing, and even to cases of children committing murder etc.. → The cause and emergence of this is because of the fall or print culture and its replacement by television culture. 16. What is meant by the information hierarchy? → Information hierarchy is a sharp division between adults who can read, and children, who cannot. → This gave adults the power to keep knowledge about sex, money, violence, illness death and other 'adult' matters a secret from children, pushing childhood to be more associated with innocence and ignorance. → By destroying the information hierarchy, information is being made more likely to be accessed by children and the boundary is being broken and the innocence of childhood is replaced by knowledge and cynicism. 17. Why does Opie (1993) argue that childhood is not disappearing? →Based on a lifetime of research into children's unsupervised games, rhymes and songs she argues there is strong evidence of the continued existence of separate children's culture over many years. → It shows how different types of communication technology- print and TV can influence the way in which childhood is constructed. However, he over emphasises TV as the most influential factor. 18. Why does Jenks (2005) believe that childhood is changing? → He believes that childhood is changing because it was a creation of modern society. → To achieve this, the vulnerable, undeveloped child needed to be nurtured, protected and controlled, especially by 'chi tred family' and ES imposing conformity on children. → Now he argues society is moving more towards postmodernism and there is a significant change again. 19. How has the move to a postmodern society affected children and adults? → This generates feelings of insecurity. → In this context, relationships w/ their children become adults' last refuge from the constant uncertainty of life. → Adults become more fearful for their child's security and more preoccupied with protecting them, furthering the perspective of prevailing child protection and vulnerability. 20. What are the problems with Jenks' views? → Jenks' over generalises his views which can be a problem as he makes sweeping statements that imply all children are in the same position. → Additionally, he has evidence that is small and unrepresentative. 21. What is the march of progress view on childhood and which sociologists share this view? → The MIP view argues that over the past few centuries, the position of children in western societies has been steadily improving and today is better than before. → Lloyd De Mause (1974) says 'The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we only recently have begun to awaken.' → Aries and Shorter hold a march in progress view and argue today's children are more valued, better cared for, protected and educated- I.e. have more privileges in the hands of the older people in their lives- protection. → There are better healthcare standards for babies reducing the infant mortality rate. 22. Why do many sociologists argue that families have become more child-centred? → Children are no longer to be 'seen and not heard', as they were in Victorian times. → They are now the focal point of the family, consulted on many decisions as never before. → Parents invest a lot into their children, including money, time, and emotional energy. → It can therefore be argued that it is not just the family that is child centred but society as a whole too. 23. Why does Sue Palmer describe childhood as "toxic"? → Rapid technologies and cultural changes in the past 25 years have damaged children's physical, emotional and intellectual development stemming from junk food, computer games, intensive marketing to children, the long hours worked by parents and the growing emphasis on testing in education. → Concerns have been raised about young people's health and behaviours- obesity, self-harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence, early sexual experience and teenage pregnancies. 24. What is the conflict view of childhood? → Marxists and feminists. → Conflict sociologists argue the MIP view of modern childhood is based on a false and idealised image ignoring important inequalities: → Inequalities among children in terms of opportunities and risks they face, unprotection etc... → Inequalities between children and adults are greater than before, children experience greater control, oppression and dependency, not greater care and protection. 25. What are the inequalities faced among children? Give some examples of gender and ethnic differences? → Children from different nationalities are likely to experience different childhoods and life chances. → Hillman says that boys are more likely to be allowed to cross roads, go out after dark unaccompanied etc... →Bonke found girls do more domestic labour → Poor mothers are more likely to have low birth rates, linked to a physical and intellectual development delay. 26. What are the inequalities between children and adults? → MoP argue adults use this power for the benefit and protection of children- laws against child labour. → Critics see the need to free children from adult control and so their view is described as 'child liberationist'- adults take control in a number of forms. 27. How can adult control over children take the form of abuse? → Takes control of in the extreme form of neglect or physical abuse. →in 2013, 43,000 children were subject to child protection plans because they were deemed to be at risk of serious harm. → Childline 20,000 calls a year- a 'dark side' 28. How does society control children's spaces? → Shops might display signs such as 'no school children' → Children are told to play in some areas but not in others. → An increasing surveillance over children in public spaces. → Road safety and 'stranger danger' increase of concerns 29. How does society control children's time? → Daily routines → Adults also control the speed at which children 'grow up', and whether a child is too old or young for something. 30. How does society control children's bodies? → How they sit, walk and run, what they wear, hairstyles, ear piercings etc... → Additionally, adults control the way in which children touch their own bodies- told not to pick nose etc... 31. How does society control children's access to resources? → Labour laws and compulsory schooling exclude them from all but the most marginal, low paid, Part time employment. ➜ Although the state pays child benefit- goes to parent and not child → Pocket money, with restrictions on what to spend. 32. Why does Gittins (1998) argue that age patriarchy exists? → He argues that there is an age patriarchy of adult domination and child dependency. → Patriarchy means 'rule by the father' → This power may assert itself in the form of violence against both children and women. 33. What is "acting down" and what purpose does this serve? → Behaving in ways expected of younger children- resisting adult control e.g. baby talk → Hockey and James conclude modern childhood is a status from which most children would like to escape from. 34. What does Mayall (2004) argue about "the new sociology of childhood"? → 'Adultist' point of view. → Sees children as mere 'socialisation projects' for adults to mould for what they will become in the future.