DNA Replication and Chromosome Structure

The S phase of the cell cycle is crucial for DNA replication and chromosome duplication. This process ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genetic material.

Key points about DNA replication and chromosome structure:

1. At the beginning of the S phase, each chromosome consists of a single DNA double helix.
2. After DNA replication, each chromosome is composed of two identical DNA double helices.
3. Each double helix is called a chromatid, and the two identical chromatids are referred to as sister chromatids.
4. Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere until they are separated during mitosis.

Vocabulary: Somatic cells - Body cells that undergo mitosis, excluding cells that undergo meiosis to become sperm or eggs.

Human somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes, organized into two sets of 23, with one set inherited from each parent. In contrast, gametes $sex cells like eggs or sperm$ are haploid, containing only one set of 23 chromosomes.

Highlight: A typical human cell contains approximately 2 meters of DNA, which is about 250,000 times greater than the cell's diameter.

To package this extensive amount of DNA efficiently, eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin, a complex of DNA fibrils associated with proteins, primarily histones.

Definition: Histones - A family of basic proteins that associate with DNA and help package it into chromatin.

The mitosis phases occur in the following order:

1. Prophase
2. Prometaphase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase

Understanding the structure and organization of chromosomes is essential for comprehending the intricate process of cell division and genetic inheritance.

Early Stages of Mitosis: Prophase and Prometaphase

The early stages of mitosis involve significant changes in cellular organization and chromosome structure. These stages set the stage for the accurate segregation of genetic material.

End of G2 $Early Prophase$:

1. The centrosome, which serves as the central microtubule-organizing center, duplicates. In human cells, each centrosome contains two centrioles.
2. Chromosomes, which were duplicated during the S phase, are not yet visible individually as they have not condensed.

Prophase:

1. Parental chromosomes, already duplicated, are composed of two sister chromatids held together at the centromere.
2. The nucleolus disappears, and the nuclear envelope begins to fragment.
3. The mitotic spindle starts to assemble.
4. Microtubules radiate from the centrosomes toward the plasma membrane, forming structures called radial arrays or asters.

Vocabulary: Centrosome - The central microtubule-organizing center of cells, containing centrioles in human cells.

Prometaphase:

1. Microtubules of the spindle invade the nuclear area and interact with the now more condensed chromosomes.
2. Microtubules extend from each centrosome toward the middle of the cell.
3. Each chromatid develops a kinetochore, a specialized protein structure located at the centromere.
4. Some microtubules attach to the kinetochores, becoming "kinetochore microtubules."

Definition: Kinetochore - A specialized protein structure located at the centromere of each chromatid, which serves as an attachment point for spindle microtubules.

These early stages of mitosis are crucial for organizing the cellular components and preparing the chromosomes for proper segregation. The breakdown of the nuclear envelope and the formation of the mitotic spindle are key events that allow for the interaction between microtubules and chromosomes, setting the stage for the subsequent phases of cell division.

Metaphase: The Longest Phase of Mitosis

Metaphase is a critical stage in the cell division cycle, marking the transition between chromosome preparation and separation. This phase is characterized by specific arrangements of cellular components and chromosomes.

Key features of metaphase:

1. Duration: Metaphase is the longest phase of mitosis, typically lasting about 20 minutes.
2. Centrosome positioning: The centrosomes are now located at opposite ends of the cell, forming the two poles of the mitotic spindle.
3. Chromosome alignment: The chromosomes align along the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane equidistant between the spindle's two poles.
4. Centromere positioning: The centromeres of the chromosomes lie directly on the metaphase plate.

Highlight: The alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate is crucial for ensuring proper chromosome segregation in the subsequent anaphase.

During prometaphase and metaphase, the interaction between kinetochore microtubules and chromosomes results in a back-and-forth jerking motion of the chromosomes. This movement helps to properly orient the chromosomes on the metaphase plate.

Vocabulary: Metaphase plate - An imaginary plane located equidistant between the two poles of the mitotic spindle, where chromosomes align during metaphase.

Non-kinetochore microtubules also play a role during this phase by interacting with microtubules from the opposite pole of the spindle. However, these microtubules do not physically touch each other.

The precise alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate is essential for the equal distribution of genetic material to daughter cells. This alignment is monitored by the spindle assembly checkpoint, also known as the M checkpoint.

Definition: Spindle assembly checkpoint $M checkpoint$ - A cell cycle checkpoint that ensures all chromosomes are properly aligned on the metaphase plate before allowing the cell to proceed to anaphase.

Understanding the events of metaphase is crucial for comprehending how cells ensure the accurate segregation of genetic material during cell division. Any errors in chromosome alignment or attachment to the spindle can lead to chromosomal abnormalities in daughter cells, potentially resulting in genetic disorders or contributing to cancer development.

Cell Division in Eukaryotes: Mitosis

The cell cycle is the life of a cell from its formation by a dividing parent cell until its own division into two daughter cells. This process is divided into distinct cell cycle phases that ensure proper growth, DNA replication, and division.

The main phases of the cell cycle include:

1. Interphase $I$: G1: Growth phase S: DNA synthesis phase G2: Preparation for division
2. Mitotic Phase $M$: Mitosis: Division of the nucleus Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm

The duration of these phases varies, with the entire division process typically taking about 24 hours. The M phase is relatively short, lasting less than 1 hour, while the S phase takes 10-12 hours. G1 and G2 phases occupy the remaining time.

Highlight: There are three main checkpoints in the cell cycle, regulated by internal proteins called cyclins:

1. G1 checkpoint
2. G2 checkpoint
3. M checkpoint

These checkpoints are crucial for maintaining the integrity of the cell division process.

Vocabulary: Apoptosis - Programmed cell death, a regulated process that can occur if DNA damage is detected and cannot be repaired.

The cell cycle diagram illustrates the sequence of events and the placement of checkpoints. If DNA damage is detected at the G1 or G2 checkpoints and cannot be repaired, apoptosis may be triggered. The M checkpoint ensures proper chromosome alignment before allowing the cell to proceed with division.

Example: During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes:

1. The cell rounds up and the nucleus collapses
2. Chromatin condenses and the nucleus fragments
3. The plasma membrane blisters, forming blebs
4. The cell fragments, containing DNA fragments

This process is essential for maintaining tissue homeostasis and eliminating potentially dangerous cells.