The Enlightenment and Colonial Self-Government

The Enlightenment provided the intellectual foundation for American independence. John Locke's Second Treatise on Government established ideas about natural rights, while Adam Smith's writings promoted free trade and the concept of the "invisible hand" in economics. These ideas, along with Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the social contract, shaped American thinking about government and liberty.

Before the French and Indian War, Britain practiced salutary neglect, a hands-off approach that allowed colonies to develop independently. This period of British absenteeism let Americans establish their own economic systems and local governments. By 1755, colonial America had achieved remarkable prosperity, with some of the highest GDP per capita in the world.

Everything changed after the French and Indian War (1754-1763). Britain's massive war debt of 129 million pounds led Parliament to assert greater control over the colonies. The British strengthened the Navigation Acts, created vice-admiralty courts with corrupt judges, and established the Board of Trade to develop mercantilist policies.

Did you know? Before Britain tightened control, American colonists were actually proud British loyalists with high literacy rates and life expectancy. The colonies were doing so well economically that their Gross National Product was about half of Great Britain's entire GNP!

From War to Revolution

The French and Indian War dramatically changed the relationship between Britain and the colonies. George Washington's early military career began here, with most Native Americans allying with the French. Britain's victory in 1763 brought them control of French Canada and lands east of the Mississippi—but also massive debt.

Britain tried to prevent costly conflicts with Native Americans through the Proclamation of 1763, which limited western settlement. Colonists viewed this as denying them rightful lands, especially after contributing to the war effort. Meanwhile, British Prime Ministers shifted policies drastically—from Robert Walpole who encouraged colonial development to George Grenville who believed colonies should pay for their own defense.

The tensions finally exploded at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. Governor Gage sent 700 British soldiers to arrest rebel leaders and seize weapons. The result was the famous "shot heard round the world" at Concord, with 18 Minutemen and 99 British soldiers dead.

Remember this! The shift in British policy after 1763 is crucial for understanding the American Revolution. While colonists had largely governed themselves for decades, Britain suddenly imposed strict controls and taxes, creating a perfect storm for revolution.

Independence and Revolution

The Second Continental Congress began meeting in May 1775, attempting diplomacy through the Olive Branch Petition while simultaneously preparing for war. After Britain rejected peace efforts through the Prohibitory Act, colonists moved toward independence. The Congress created the Continental Army with George Washington as commander.

Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense (1776) convinced many Americans that reconciliation was impossible. Paine argued that the geographic distance was too great for British rule to make sense and that King George wanted only to fight for control of America.

The Declaration of Independence (1776), drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, applied "the laws of Nature" to justify revolution. It declared that "all men are created equal" with "unalienable rights" including "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The document listed grievances against King George III and declared the 13 colonies as independent sovereign states.

Think about this: The Revolution divided Americans into three groups: Patriots who supported independence, Loyalists who remained loyal to the crown, and Neutrals who stayed out of the conflict. Where would you have stood?

The long war finally ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783), negotiated by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay. Britain recognized American independence and granted all lands east of the Mississippi to the new nation, though Native Americans were excluded from the treaty.

Building a New Society

The Revolution sparked social changes throughout America. Liberalism and egalitarianism promoted civil rights and private property, while republicanism emphasized representative government working for the common good. Society began to value personal merit over inheritance, though the upper class still controlled most of America's wealth.

Women played vital roles in the Revolution despite being excluded from formal politics. Upper-class women promoted the cause through correspondence, participated in boycotts against the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts, ran households and estates during their husbands' absence, and organized campaigns to support the war. Abigail Adams famously advocated for women's rights during this period.

After winning independence, Americans needed to create a new government. They debated whether to embrace republicanism (power in the hands of "virtuous" landed elites working for the common good) or democracy (which many founders feared as "mob rule"). They also argued over who should vote: property owners? All white men? Women? Christians?

The first attempt at government came with the Articles of Confederation. This created a unicameral legislature and weak national government with no executive or judicial system. Each state retained "sovereignty, freedom, and independence" with one vote in Congress, regardless of size. The Articles required unanimous consent for any new tax or amendment.

Connect the dots: The debate between republicanism and democracy continues today. The founders created a republic rather than a direct democracy, but over time American government has become more democratic, expanding voting rights and citizen participation.

From Articles to Constitution

The Articles of Confederation had some successes, particularly in organizing western territories. The Land Ordinance of 1785 created a system of townships divided into 36 sections of 640 acres each, with land set aside for schools and churches. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 prohibited slavery north of the Ohio River and established a process for territories to become states once they reached 60,000 residents.

However, the Articles had serious flaws: Congress couldn't tax citizens or regulate commerce, there was no executive to enforce laws, no national courts existed, and amendments required unanimous consent. These weaknesses became obvious during Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787), when Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays shut down courts to prevent foreclosures on their farms. The federal government couldn't respond effectively to this crisis.

These problems led to the Annapolis Convention (1786), where delegates from five states met to discuss interstate commerce. They decided to call for a broader convention to reform the government. In 1787, the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia with delegates from all states except Rhode Island. Though originally tasked with reforming the Articles, they secretly decided to create an entirely new government.

Critical thinking: Shays' Rebellion terrified many wealthy Americans. What does this tell you about who wanted a stronger national government and why?

The 55 Convention delegates were all white males, mostly wealthy, middle-aged professionals—especially lawyers or politicians. About one-third owned slaves. Notable delegates included George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin.

Creating the Constitution

The Constitutional Convention immediately faced a crucial question: how would states be represented in the new government? The Virginia Plan proposed a strong central government with a bicameral legislature where both houses would be based on population (benefiting larger states). The New Jersey Plan called for a unicameral legislature where each state would have equal votes (benefiting smaller states).

The Great Compromise resolved this conflict by creating a bicameral legislature: the House of Representatives with proportional representation, directly elected for two-year terms; and the Senate with equal representation (two senators per state), elected by state legislatures for six-year terms. Both plans allowed Congress to pass revenue bills, regulate commerce, and have supremacy over states.

The Constitution created a system of separation of powers with three branches of government: Legislative (Article 1), Executive (Article 2), and Judicial (Article 3). It established checks and balances to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful. The document also created federalism, dividing powers between national and state governments.

Key concept: The Constitution was designed to fix the specific problems of the Articles of Confederation. Where the Articles created a weak central government, the Constitution gave the federal government power to tax, regulate commerce, enforce laws through an executive branch, and interpret laws through a judicial branch.

Another major controversy involved slavery. Southern states wanted slaves counted for representation but not taxation. Northern states pointed out the hypocrisy of counting people who couldn't vote and had no rights. The Three-Fifths Compromise counted each slave as three-fifths of a person for both representation and taxation. The Constitution also included a fugitive slave clause and banned the importation of slaves starting in 1808.

Ratification Battle

The Constitution needed to be ratified by 9 of 13 states, leading to an intense national debate. Federalists supported the Constitution, favoring a strong central government focused on the common good. They were typically merchants, urbanites, and wealthier citizens. Alexander Hamilton and James Madison published the Federalist Papers to argue for ratification.

In Federalist No. 10, Madison argued that a large republic would actually protect against the "violence of faction" better than small republics. In Federalist No. 51, he wrote the famous line: "If men were angels, no government would be necessary." He explained that government must "control the governed" while being "obliged to control itself."

Antifederalists opposed the Constitution, preferring stronger states' rights. They were typically small farmers and western homesteaders. George Mason and Samuel Adams led opposition, with one antifederalist writing, "I had rather be a free citizen of the free small republic of Massachusetts, than an oppressed subject of the great American empire." They feared the Constitution would create a "consolidated government" that would oppress the people with taxes and military campaigns.

Put it in perspective: The Federalist vs. Antifederalist debate established political divisions that continue today—between those who favor stronger federal government and those who prefer more power at the state and local level.

The Constitution was ratified on June 21, 1788. Benjamin Franklin observed the sun carved on Washington's chair and remarked: "I have often looked at that behind the president without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting. But now I... know that it is a rising...sun."

After ratification, Congress added the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments protecting individual liberties, including freedom of religion, speech, press, and protection from unreasonable searches and seizures.

Washington's Presidency

George Washington was unanimously elected as the first president, with John Adams as vice president. Washington established important precedents including a Cabinet with Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. The Judiciary Act of 1789 established lower federal courts and the position of Attorney General.

Alexander Hamilton developed ambitious economic plans to strengthen the new nation. His Report on the Public Credit proposed that the federal government assume both national and state debts, totaling $75 million. His Report on a National Bank established a private bank to manage government revenues and currency. His Report on Manufactures recommended protective tariffs to promote domestic industries.

Hamilton's financial plans faced opposition, particularly his excise tax on whiskey. Western Pennsylvania farmers attacked federal tax collectors in the Whiskey Rebellion (1791-1794). Washington led federal troops to put down the rebellion, asserting federal authority. Thomas Jefferson opposed this use of military force and began catering to western farmers' interests.

Why it matters: Hamilton's economic plans established the foundation of American capitalism. By creating sound public credit, a national banking system, and promoting manufacturing, he helped transform America from an agricultural colony to an economic powerhouse.

In foreign policy, Washington issued a Proclamation of Neutrality during the French Revolution, avoiding entanglement in European conflicts. Jay's Treaty (1796) established favorable trade with Britain and removed British troops from northwest forts, while Pinckney's Treaty (1796) established boundaries with Spain. The Treaty of Greenville (1795) attempted to resolve conflicts with Native Americans.

Washington established important precedents: serving only two terms, creating a Cabinet, maintaining neutrality in foreign affairs, and working with Congress. In his Farewell Address, he warned against political parties, sectionalism, and foreign entanglements.

The First Party System

Despite Washington's warnings, the first American political parties emerged during his presidency. The Federalists, led by Hamilton, supported national policies, a strong central government, commerce and manufacturing. They were typically urban merchants, bankers, and wealthy citizens from the Northeast. Federalists favored Britain and opposed the French Revolution.

The Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson, supported states' rights, strong local government, and agriculture. They appealed to small farmers, plantation owners, and artisans, particularly in the West and South. They were anti-British and supported the French Revolution.

Federalists interpreted the Constitution loosely ("loose constructionists"), allowing for implied powers. Democratic-Republicans were strict constructionists who believed the federal government should exercise only powers explicitly stated in the Constitution.

Connect to today: America's first political parties established patterns that persist in modern politics, including regional divisions, urban/rural divides, and debates over the proper size and scope of federal government.

When John Adams became president, tensions with France escalated into the XYZ Affair. French officials (called X, Y, and Z in diplomatic reports) demanded bribes before negotiating with American delegates. This led to the undeclared Quasi-War (1797-1799) with France.

Adams and the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which allowed deportation of foreigners considered threats, increased residency requirements for citizenship, and prohibited criticism of the government. These laws targeted Democratic-Republicans and their supporters. Jefferson and Madison responded with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which developed the theory of nullification—the idea that states could declare federal laws unconstitutional.

America's Social and Economic Transformation

As the new nation took shape, American society underwent dramatic changes. Families that had once produced goods primarily for their own consumption began focusing on producing for markets. A new class of entrepreneurs and investors emerged, creating tension between those favoring manufacturing (Hamilton's vision) and those supporting agriculture (Jefferson's vision).

The Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties reflected this division. Federalists supported a strong central government, loose interpretation of the Constitution, commerce and manufacturing, and pro-British policies. They drew support from the "rich, the well-born, the able" in the Northeast.

Democratic-Republicans favored states' rights, strict interpretation of the Constitution, agriculture, and pro-French policies. Their base included small farmers, plantation owners, and artisans in the South and West.

Big picture: By 1800, America had established a functioning government, begun developing its economy, and created a political system that allowed for peaceful transfer of power. Though many issues remained unresolved—particularly slavery and Native American relations—the foundation for a lasting republic had been laid.

These divisions became particularly apparent during Adams' presidency when the XYZ Affair heightened tensions with France. The Federalist-controlled government passed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, which restricted immigration and limited free speech. Jefferson and Madison countered with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, establishing early ideas about states' rights to oppose federal power.

As the 18th century ended, the young United States had survived its first major political conflicts and established traditions of democratic governance that would continue to evolve. Though far from perfect, the American experiment had successfully launched.