In the ancient world, almost all settled agricultural societies were ruled by kings, while smaller societies implemented democratic or republican governments. Weak central leadership often relied on aristocratic government. Popular sovereignty was rarely challenged, as people aimed to make kings responsible to the citizens they governed. John Locke's "Second Treatise of Civil Government" (1690) proposed that government arose in the remote past when people decided to work together to form civil society and appoint rulers to protect their common interests. Locke relocated sovereignty from rulers as divine agents to the people of society. Individual freedom was emphasized by Voltaire (1694-1778), who resented the persecution of religious minorities and the censorship of royal officials. He advocated for religious toleration and freedom. Political and legal equality was supported with the belief that all individuals should be equal before the law. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "The Social Contract" (1762) suggested that members of a society collectively hold sovereignty and would participate directly in the formulation of policy and the creation of laws. However, he did not envision political rights being shared with certain groups. The influence of Enlightenment values spread and was adopted by revolutionary leaders in Europe and the Americas, shaping states and societies worldwide.
After the mid-1760s, North American colonists became increasingly unsatisfied with British imperial rule, as they had grown accustomed to a degree of autonomy. Geographic distance weakened royal power, and the financial strain from the Seven Years' War led the British Parliament to impose taxes (Sugar Act in 1764, Stamp Act in 1765, Townshend Act in 1767, Tea Act in 1773, Quartering Act in 1765) which were unpopular in America. Tensions rose as the colonies argued for common law rights and protested taxation without representation. Clashes, such as the Boston Tea Party (1773) and skirmishes between British troops and colonial militia in 1775, paved the way for the Declaration of Independence, which declared the right to alter or abolish an infringing government. British enjoyed early advantages but faced difficulties in suppressing the revolution. George Washington provided strong military leadership, and with support from other European states, the British forces surrendered in 1781. In 1783, the Peace of Paris formalized British recognition of American independence.
In France, the old order was replaced instead of retained, as experienced with American to British law. Half of the French government's revenue went to pay off war debts, with another quarter going to the armed forces. Louis XVI's inability to raise more revenue led to increased taxes on the nobility and the summoning of the Estates General. The third estate demanded political and social reform, but faced opposition from the first and second estates. This led to the dramatic formation of the National Assembly on June 17, 1789.
The Enlightenment ideas of individual freedom, equality, and popular sovereignty influenced revolutionary events in both Europe and the Americas, shaping the course of modern society.
